International
Zoo News Vol. 51/1 (No. 330) January/February
2004
CONTENTS
OBITUARY – Roger Conant
GUEST EDITORIAL
Georgia Mason and Ros Clubb
FEATURE ARTICLES
Changes in Behaviour and Enclosure
Use Thomas Grittinger
by Polar Bears over Time
Animal Management at Auckland Zoo. Amy Dixon
1: Clicker Training Llamas
Animal Management at Auckland Zoo. Asha Rodger-Barbato
2: The Springbok Conditioning
Programme
Carl Hagenbeck's Plans for Rome Zoo
– Spartaco Gippoliti
and What Became of Them
Letter to the Editor
Book Reviews
Conservation
Miscellany
Annual Report
International Zoo News
Recent Articles
* * *
OBITUARY
Roger Conant, 1909–2003
Roger Conant, former director of
Philadelphia Zoo, died on 19 December 2003 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, at the
age of 94. He was an internationally respected herpetologist who was still
writing and producing excellent manuscripts almost until he died.
Dr Conant was an inspiration for me
and countless other young men who aspired to become involved with animals. When
I was just getting interested in exotic animals, it was a side benefit of his
weekly radio program, on station KYW in my home town of Philadelphia, that
after telling about some animal or group of animals at Philadelphia Zoo, where he
was at that time curator of reptiles and public relations, there would be a
quiz, to see if you had been paying attention to what he was saying. If the
penny postcard you sent back to him had the right answers, it would be returned
marked for free admission. It was the means that I used to enter the zoo for
many years.
I do not recall when we first met,
but it would have been sometime between 1941 and 1945, when at age 16 I became
a keeper at the zoo. I do not remember ever working in the reptile house – that
took some skills I did not have. However, in my walks about the zoo I always
went there, if for no other reason than to chat with the keeper of reptiles,
Pete, who on crowded days would stand on the upper step to the building. I did
know all the species in the reptile house, but did not keep as close a record
on them as I did on mammals and birds. When I left the job after a few months,
Roger remained friendly, although senior staff had been told not to talk to me
– I was a `troublemaker', or so thought the director. We remained friends for
the rest of his life.
Dr Conant began his zoo career at
Toledo Zoo, Ohio, but spent most of it at Philadelphia, and he was just as good
at being a public relations person as he was as a herpetologist. He could always
be found doing something on `May Day', the first Sunday in May, when events
were held to attract the public; on many occasions it was the release of the
rhesus macaques on Monkey Island, but often it might be Roger milking some
rattlesnakes for their venom. Philadelphia was the first zoo to have such a
special event day that I know of, though now almost every zoo has a series of
such days to bring in the much-needed paying visitors.
Dr Conant became better known to the
reading public when he compiled his field guide to the reptiles and amphibians
of the United States in 1958; it is still in print today. One of his favorite
areas of field exploration was Mexico, and he published countless papers on the
herpetology of that area. Many species from the region were kept alive in his
office at the zoo, where they might be photographed by his second wife
Isabelle, who was the love of his life – they did so many things together. She,
like Roger, almost always had a smile on her face, and like him spoke softly; it
was a rare day when either of them raised their voices.
After serving for many years in his
dual curatorial role, he became the director of Philadelphia Zoo. For many
years, despite a full plate of zoo and herpetology work, he also edited the
zoological portion of the journal Parks and Recreation, which told you
what other zoos in North America were doing, often in great detail. This was
how I learned what was going on in other zoos – too bad that so few of the
current crop of zoo professionals have never heard of it or read it.
Roger retired in 1973 and moved to
Albuquerque, where he continued to produce many good papers. I last saw him
there in 2001 when I came to the city for a memorial service for a former
Albuquerque Zoo director. We had a nice lunch, and some good conversation.
His autobiography A Field Guide
to the Life and Times of Roger Conant, published in 1997, gives all the
details of his wonderful life. He will be missed by his many friends.
Marvin L. Jones
* * *
GUEST EDITORIAL
Last October, our paper in the
leading scientific journal Nature showed that in Carnivora, captive
infant mortality and individual stereotypy performance is predicted by a
species' natural ranging behaviour. Our finding showed objectively, for the
first time, that specific aspects of wild behaviour make species resistant – or
vulnerable – to captive welfare problems. It also showed that hunting does not
underlie the pacing of carnivores, despite what is usually assumed. This has
two practical implications for zoos. First, mimicking aspects of a wide-ranging
lifestyle should be the key to effective environmental enrichment; providing
larger enclosures, with more dens, and perhaps most importantly, more
day-to-day variety, is likely to be most effective. Second, if improving an
enclosure proves too hard or expensive, wide-ranging carnivores could instead
be replaced by naturally more stay-at-home species, e.g. polar bears by grizzly
bears, brown hyaenas by spotted hyaenas, fishers by pine martens, and so on.
Such recommendations should not be controversial; after all, the World Zoo
Conservation Strategy itself calls for zoos to focus on those species for which
they can provide the best husbandry.
In his editorial in the November
issue of IZN, Nicholas Gould attempted to critique what he perceived our
methods and conclusions to be. It is a pleasure to use this Guest Editorial to
correct his errors of fact and interpretation. Here, we explain in more detail
how and why we did this research (as the word limit of the Nature Brief
Communication – half that of this editorial! – did not permit this); identify
and deal with Gould's various errors; and discuss how zoos should react to
animal welfare research.
Our work first arose from a desire
to understand carnivore stereotypy. Many had suggested that carnivores pace
because they are motivated to hunt, yet this idea had never been scientifically
tested. Furthermore, other hypotheses also existed – again, all untested; for
example, that omnivorous, or territorial, or wide-ranging, animals are most
stereotypic. Properly testing these ideas seemed important, and several UK
zoos, along with UFAW and the International Zoo Veterinary Group, helped fund
our project. Our approach was to use species differences to identify the correct
hypothesis. If the hunting hypothesis was correct, species that naturally hunt
for 100% of their prey, or pursue them over great distances, should be more
stereotypic than species that are naturally omnivorous, carrion-eating, or have
`sit and wait' hunting strategies. But if the ranging hypothesis was correct,
then in contrast, species with naturally large home ranges should be most
stereotypic.
The research involved well over two
years' intense data acquisition, sorting and analysis. First, we compiled all
the good-quality reports of carnivore stereotypy that we could. This totalled c.
100 studies, representing over 300 stereotyping individuals and 35 species,
across 40 sites. The studies were largely recent (85% from 1990 onwards), and
all from the developed world. From this, we calculated the mean proportion of
time spent stereotyping by the pacing individuals at each site (the only
variable we could calculate accurately; non-stereotyping animals are generally
not studied, and so prevalence or mean levels across all animals cannot be
assessed reliably); and calculated the median value across sites for each
species. Next, we quantified typical activities in the wild. An exhaustive
trawl through specialist books, and the last four decades' field research journals,
generated over 500 good-quality data sources for our 35 target species. From
this, we could calculate each species' typical (i.e. median) natural home range
size, time spent hunting, time spent active, distances covered while hunting
and per day, and several other variables. Because home range size and daily
distance travelled vary enormously with food availability, we also calculated
the typical minimal values for these variables, to represent behaviour when
conditions are good. Finally, we collated further data relevant to welfare.
Stereotypies generally signify poor environments, but indications also exist
that they help animals to cope. We therefore needed extra information to assess
whether species differences in stereotypy have real welfare significance. Many
aspects of functioning can be affected by stress, but the one variable we could
assess similarly for all our target species was infant mortality. We collated
figures from the International Zoo Yearbook; from 1988 onwards, these
volumes provided data from over 500 zoos worldwide, 80% in the developed world,
on over 26,000 births and c. 9,000 deaths in our target carnivores. We
calculated period mortality figures for each zoo, and then a median value for
each species. Regressing wild data against captive variables gave two main
results: (1) to our surprise, no aspect of hunting or foraging behaviour
predicted captive stereotypy or infant mortality; and instead (2), daily
distance travelled in the wild, and both median and minimum home range sizes,
predicted median stereotypy and infant mortality levels. The infant mortality
effect was particularly striking: highly statistically significant, and a true
home range effect quite independent of body size.
With these details in mind, let us
turn to Gould's attempted criticisms of our work. His first gripe, a `suspicion
that the authors had decided beforehand what it was they wanted to prove', is
as ridiculous as it is insulting. Our aim was to objectively test competing
hypotheses, and that is what we did. If we had had any prior expectations, they
were that hunting would be the key – an idea that proved to be wrong! Next, he
raises issues about just one of our 35 species: lions. First, in captivity,
aren't they largely inactive, and breed well? Who knows for sure, without good
data on stereotypy prevalence and birth rates, but our data show that when
lions develop pacing, they spend a lot of time in the behaviour (a median of
48%); and that when they breed, 40% of cubs die before one month of age. Second,
isn't cub mortality very high in the wild? Gould cites Schaller's account of
66% of wild cubs dying in their first year, but omits to note that only 30% die
before the age of six months, at least a third of which succumb for reasons
that are absent in zoos (e.g. predation). Thus from Schaller's work, we would
actually expect lion cub mortality in the safe zoo environment to be under 20%
in the first month. Next, Gould compares information he has looked up on animal
density for lions and snow leopards. These data are, however, irrelevant as
they are not about home range size (which is the area an animal ranges over –
if there are 55 lions in an 100-km2 area, but they each use all of
that area, their range size is 100 km2, not 100/55 km2!).
Our thorough literature survey shows that, in fact, the median home range for
lions is over twice that for snow leopards. Gould next tries to say that we
have ignored the effects of food availability, apparently not noticing that we
looked at minimum range sizes for this very reason. (And it is perhaps worth
pointing out here that Craighead and colleagues have shown that well-fed
grizzly bears exploiting rubbish dumps still range over areas of 20 km2
or more!) Gould ends by giving an idealistic view of zoos and animal welfare,
and it is this that we would like to end with.
We agree with Gould that the best
zoos care about welfare, and strive to optimise it. We also agree that some
enclosures are very successful; and that measures like infant mortality have
generally improved over time (our own data, for example, show this in Carnivora
over the last 10–15 years). But his implication that zoo welfare problems are
all things of the past, and that zoos do not need any outside input thank you
very much, is absurd. Everyone knows that stereotypies, infanticide,
self-mutilation (e.g. fur-chewing), failures to mate, failures to conceive or
bear young to term, and even short lifespans are not unusual in zoos. Everyone
in their right mind also wants to solve these problems – but zoos often do not
have the resources or expertise to do this themselves; their research budgets
are small (or non-existent), and their staff usually unfamiliar with the huge
recent literatures on assessing and reducing animal stress. So if animal
welfare researchers like ourselves – and there are a lot of us, and we are not
going to go away! – become interested in zoo issues, how should zoos react?
Some have responded with the knee-jerk hostility and denial typified by Gould's
editorial, but others, especially some of the large, wealthy North American
zoos, have simply welcomed the work, and found it helpful and unthreatening.
Surely this is a more appropriate response (and far more effective in PR terms,
too)?
Dr Georgia Mason and Dr Ros Clubb
Animal Behaviour Research Group,
Zoology Department, Oxford University
* * *
CHANGES IN BEHAVIOUR AND ENCLOSURE
USE BY POLAR BEARS OVER TIME
BY THOMAS GRITTINGER
Many polar bears (Ursus maritimus
Phipps) spend their entire lives in zoos, which spend a large amount of money
to provide stimulating enclosures and activities. Yet it is unclear what effect
these factors have on the bears' behaviour over long periods of time. To the
author's knowledge, no investigations of this question have been conducted.
Other papers on captive polar bears have focused on behavioural changes on a
daily or seasonal time frame (Ames, 1993, 1994; Grittinger, 1997). The present
paper focuses on observations of two individuals taken six years apart at the
Milwaukee County Zoo (Wisconsin, U.S.A.).
Polar bears are ideal subjects for
such studies for several reasons. These engaging animals are relatively easy to
observe on account of their size and the pace of most of their activities, and,
with the exception of a female with newborns, are active throughout the year.
Captive polar bears are more active than their wild counterparts (Ames, 1993).
The animals and their histories
The subjects of this study are
Aurora (0.1) and Zero (1.0). Both were born in captivity. Aurora (2702) was
born at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo on 13 November 1982, and Zero (3407) was born
at Milwaukee County Zoo on 14 December 1989. They were introduced to each other
for the first time on 4 May 1993. The first set of observations was made
between 3 December 1993 and 17 July 1995. The activity patterns during this
period were reported earlier (Grittinger, 1997). At that time, Aurora was
maintained on contraceptive injections of Depo-Provera® (medroxyprogesterone
acetate). The second set of observations extended from 17 May 1999 to 19
January 2001. Aurora was not on contraceptives during this period, and oestrous
signs and attempted copulations were observed by the keepers from time to time.
She was even separated from Zero on various occasions with the hope of
pregnancy, but this did not occur. Aurora was finally donated to Cleveland Zoo
on 5 February 2001, ending the observations.
The facilities
The exhibit remained the same
throughout both time periods. The bears occupied a 28.4 m ´ 14.0 m
outdoor gunite exhibit. For data taking, the enclosure was divided into five
areas (Fig. 1). The Back/Doors area is located behind the Pool
and includes three doorways that lead into the indoor, off-exhibit cages. The
back/doors area is contiguous with the West End, which is a large terraced
area that leads upwards to a narrow shelf-like Ledge that lies just
above the doors. The west end also joins the Front, which lies between
the moat and the pool. The pool, which separates the front from the back/doors
area, is 3.7 m deep and has underwater viewing windows at the east end for the
public.
|
|
Figure 1. This illustrates the five
areas utilized by the polar bears at Milwaukee County Zoo. The three doors
along the back lead into the indoor dens which are not indicated here.
Management
Feeding time remained the same
throughout the study. The bears were fed early (09.00–10.00 hours) in the
morning in the outdoor enclosure. Two of the keepers retired or left between
1995 and 1999, but two others were there for the entire time. It is unclear
what effect, if any, this personnel change may have had on the bears'
behaviour. Likewise, no information is available on possible changes in the zoo
visitors that might have affected the behaviour of the animals. However, no major
changes were made that might have affected the interactions between the bears
and the public. Throughout the time, there was a no-feeding policy directed
towards the public, which would reduce interactions between the bears and
humans.
Methods
Aurora and Zero were observed over
two time periods, 1993–1995 and 1999–2001. In the first period, 5,921
observations were made, and in the second 3,302 were made before the final
separation of the two. For the sake of comparison, the two were observed between
09.00 and 16.00 hours. The earlier data were collected between 08.00 and 16.00,
but the first hour's data were not used here due to the small sample size of
the 1999–2001 data. Data were collected using the instantaneous sampling
technique (Altmann, 1974) at one-minute intervals. For each recording, the
animal, its location in the enclosure and its activity was documented.
Observations and recordings were made during twenty-minute sessions. Usually
three sessions took place on each visit to the zoo, though sometimes there were
two or four, depending on the availability of time. In comparing the 1993–95
data to that from 1999–2001, large-sample tests concerning the equality of two
population proportions, namely, the large-sample tests of the null hypothesis,
were used (Freund, 1973). A level of significance α = 0.05 was applied.
Results and discussion
Behaviour
The major activities and their
behaviours:
1. Inactive
sleeping/lying
sitting
standing only
2. Stereotyping
pacing
head-swinging and pawing
3. Move/explore on land
walking, climbing
checking out the door
sniffing the environment
licking the environment
clawing the environment
4. Swimming
on the surface
diving
5. Maintenance
auto-grooming
rubbing self
scratching self
feeding/drinking
urinating/defecating
6. Autoplay
playing with object
locomotor play
7. Social
sniffing cage-mate
touching/rubbing cage-mate
licking cage-mate
pawing, scratching cage-mate
chasing cage-mate
mouthing/biting cage-mate
wrestling
In comparing the observations in
1993-95 to those of 1999-01, the overriding change seemed to be the decrease in
active behaviours (Table 1). Aurora had a decrease in activity from 49.8% to
34.3% and Zero from 56.7% to 38.6% during the study. This might be attributed
to the changes seen as they matured. It should not be too surprising that
activity in polar bears would decrease in time: as Prosser (1973) pointed out,
`In general, old animals have lower metabolism than young ones.' Best et al.
(1981) reported that basal cardiac frequency recorded at rest decreased with
increasing body size and age in polar bears, and this frequency is related to
metabolism or activity coefficients. At the start of the first observations in
1993, Aurora was an adult of 11 years and Zero was only four years old. As a
comparison, female polar bears in most areas of the Arctic breed for the first
time at four years age, while males reach sexual maturity around the age of six
years (Stirling, 1988), and polar bears in zoos breed between the ages of eight
and 15 (Van Keulen-Kromhout, 1978). This suggests that we had an adult female
and an adolescent male at the start of the observations. By time the last
observations were made (2001), they were 19 and 12 years old respectively. The
decrease in activity occurred in spite of an increase in sexual activity, as
Aurora was on contraceptives only during the first period of observations. In
order to better examine only the active forms of behaviour, the differences
between behaviours as a percentage of only active behaviours were compared
(Table 2). The differences were statistically significant for most behaviours,
though not for Aurora's stereotyping, swimming or autoplaying, or for Zero's
maintenance activities.
Stereotypic behaviour was the most
frequently seen active behaviour in both animals in both periods, though it
decreased in both animals with time (Table 2). Aurora exhibited this behaviour
46.3% and 44.1% of the time; Zero went from 37.2% to 31.2% of the time. Zero's
change was statistically significant. In this study, the most common type of
stereotyping seen at both time periods was that of pacing to-and-fro, also most
frequently seen by Ames (1993). Aurora also engaged in head bobbing and swaying
(called `weaving' by Meyer-Holzapfel, 1968) whilst standing in front of one of
the doors, usually the west door.
Table 1. Changes in captive polar
bear behaviour over time. Percent time spent in all activities (both active and
inactive).
Behaviour Aurora
Zero
1993–1995 1999–2001 1993–1995 1999–2001
Inactive
Lying, sitting, 50.1 65.8 43.1 61.4
or just standing
Active
Stereotyping 23.1 15.1 21.1 12.0
Moving/exploring 12.0 5.0 8.6 5.0
Maintenance 8.3 6.9 10.6 8.0
Social 2.5 4.4 4.2 5.1*
Swimming 2.1 1.7* 2.3 4.3
Autoplaying 1.8 1.2 9.9 4.2
Total 49.8 34.3 56.7 38.6
* The difference between the early
and the late samples is not statistically significant at α = 0.05.
Table 2. Changes in captive polar
bear behaviour over time. Percent time spent in active behaviours only.
Active behaviours Aurora Zero
1993–1995 1999–2001 1993–1995 1999–2001
Stereotyping 46.3 44.1* 37.2 31.2
Moving/exploring 24.2 14.5 15.2 12.9
Maintenance 16.6 20.2 18.7 20.8*
Social 5.1 12.8 7.4 13.1
Swimming 4.2 4.9* 4.1 11.1
Autoplaying 3.6 3.5* 17.4 10.9
* The difference between the early
and the late samples is not statistically significant at α = 0.05.
There is a great deal of literature
devoted to responses of animals in restricted environments and in stereotypic
behaviour in zoo animals in general (Boorer, 1972; Hediger, 1964; Morris, 1964,
1966). Hediger (1964) described stereotyped movements as peculiar partial
hypertrophies of the space-time pattern. Polar bears are especially noted for
this behaviour. Meyer-Holzapfel (1968) described both the to-and-fro walking
and `weaving' in polar bears. She described the latter as the rhythmic head
swinging and alternate pawing, which was derived from walking back and forth in
a straight path. Wechsler (1991) discussed the relationship of stereotypies in
polar bears to frustrated appetitive behaviour. Ames (1993, 1994) found that
each individual had a unique stereotypic pattern. Van Keulen-Kromhout (1978)
examined the influence of activity levels, begging, and enclosure size on
stereotypic behaviour. But only in Ames's papers was a reference made to age,
stating that this behaviour was not exhibited by young animals (1993) and, more
specifically, is not seen in cubs of two years or younger (1994).
In this study, play came under two
categories – `autoplay' or `solo play', which usually utilized objects such as
boomer balls or other behavioural enrichment toys, and, infrequently,
`locomotor play'. Another category, social play, was classified as `social
behaviour' in this study. There was a tendency to intermingle this with other
behaviours that may not be considered as play, or to give way to or proceed
from touching, grooming, or even somewhat aggressive play- fighting. Autoplay
was far more frequent in Zero, with 17.4% and 10.9% of active behaviours, than
for Aurora with 3.6% and 3.5% of active behaviours (Table 2). There was a
significant drop-off in autoplay for Zero as he entered adulthood. Play
behaviour is one of the few areas where comments in the literature mention the
effect of age on a specific behaviour, with the anticipated inverse
relationship between age and play. Loizos (1966) considered play as being most
characteristic of young animals, whose needs are taken care of by their
parents, and of animals in captivity for whom the same functions are served by
their human guardians. Fagen (1981) pointed out that young animals tend to play
more than do adults. It is interesting that Ames (1993, 1994) mentioned that
manipulative ability in polar bears (which might include much of autoplay) was
independent of age.
Overall, social behaviour occupied
little of their time – 2.5% and 4.4% for Aurora's total activities and 4.2% and
5.1% for Zero (Table 1). In this study, social behaviour may include play
elements, ranging from only touching and other such behaviours that may be
one-sided to very interactive wrestling. Among active behaviours, it increased
from 5.1% to 12.8% for Aurora and 7.4% to 13.1% for Zero over the study period
(Table 2).
Social behaviour is not frequently
seen in wild polar bears. Stirling (1974) found that meetings between unrelated
polar bears were not common, with an average of only one encounter per 50.2
bear hours in midsummer observations. The family group made up of a female with
one or more cubs is the only extended social unit (Latour, 1981a). In the wild,
Latour (1981a and b) found that social behavior constituted 3–8% of total time
depending on age–sex class. He reported that adult males spent a greater
proportion of their total of social encounters in contact behaviour than did
sub-adults. Captive polar bears `rarely engaged in social interactions and in
most instances these were aggressive' (Ames, 1994).
Enclosure use
Throughout the study, the terraced
or multi-leveled `west end' was seldom used in spite of its large size. The
influence of topography in captive polar bears was mentioned by Van
Keulen-Kromhout (1978). She suggested that they dislike a terraced and uneven
floor. Stereotyped behaviour was less evident, and begging more so, in
enclosures where the surface is level.
As in the behaviours, there was a
change in site utilization within the exhibit over time (Table 3). One of the
major changes was seen in the use of the ledge above the three doors (Fig. 1),
with both animals spending more time there in the second period. However, Zero
showed no significant change in use of the west end or the pool in the two time
periods. Each animal seemed to have maintained its favorite areas. Zero spent
far more time in the pool than did Aurora throughout the study – 11.8% and
12.6% of the time as compared with 3.1% and 4.3%. The high values for Zero in
the pool might be related to his high values in autoplay. This is where he
usually manipulated or played with balls and floats. Aurora spent 78.3% and
64.8% and Zero spent 47.5% and 41.9% of the time in the back/door area. Zero
continued to spend a great deal (29.5% and 27.3%) of time in front. The
dynamics between the animals, in the form of avoidance, may partly explain what
areas of the exhibit were utilized at a given time. For example, often Aurora
would leave the water once Zero dived in.
Table 3. Changes in enclosure use
over time. Percent time spent in each area.
Enclosure area Aurora Zero
1993–1995 1999–2001 1993–1995 1999–2001
Back/Doors 78.3 64.8 47.5 41.9
Front 11.9 15.7 29.5 27.3
West End 4.4 6.2 10.0 9.6*
Ledge 2.3 9.0 1.2 8.6
Pool 3.1 4.3 11.8 12.6*
* The difference between the early
and the late samples is not statistically significant at α = 0.05.
Conclusions
This study suggests that the zoo
visitors might expect to see many of the same behaviours in the same polar
bears through the years, at least on the time frame examined here. Though there
was an overall reduction in activity with the passage of time, there was an
increase in social behaviour. As far as exhibit use is concerned, they each
still had their favorite areas, but both started using the ledge more as the
study progressed. This paper is but a glimpse into an area not well
investigated, which could, in the future, be examined by the use of more
animals, the use of a longer time span, and an assessment of possible human
influences on the polar bears. It would be interesting to study the possible
changes in activity and enclosure use in other species as well.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Elizabeth
Frank, Curator of Large Mammals at the Milwaukee County Zoo, Ann Grittinger,
Greta Grittinger-Odders, and Barrett Scherff, Biology Department, University of
Wisconsin Sheboygan, for suggestions on the manuscript, and Thomas Peneski,
Mathematics Department, and Paul Soik, Information Processes Consultant, for
their assistance with the statistics.
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animals to a restricted environment. Symposia of the Zoological Society of
London, No. 13, 99–118.
Morris, D. (1966): Abnormal rituals
in stress situations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 251: 327–330.
Prosser, C.L. (ed.) (1973): Comparative
Animal Physiology (3rd ed.). W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Stirling, I. (1974): Midsummer
observations on the behavior of wild polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Canadian
Journal of Zoology 52: 1191–1198.
Stirling, I. (1988): Polar Bears.
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Wechsler,
B. (1991): Stereotypies in polar bears. Zoo Biology
10: 177–188.
Van Keulen-Kromhout, G. (1978): Zoo
enclosures for bears Ursidae: their influence on captive behaviour and
reproduction. International Zoo Yearbook 18: 177–186.
Thomas F. Grittinger, Ph.D.,
University of Wisconsin Sheboygan, One University Drive, Sheboygan, Wisconsin 53081,
U.S.A. (E-mail: tgrittin@uwc.edu ).
* * *
ANIMAL MANAGEMENT AT AUCKLAND ZOO.
1: CLICKER TRAINING LLAMAS
BY AMY DIXON
The `clicker' – a small plastic box
with a metal strip that makes a sharp clicking sound when pressed – is a
training tool which has become widely used with a great variety of animal
species. Clicker training is a science-based system for teaching animals
behaviours using positive reinforcement, with the sound of the clicker being a
signal to communicate to the animal that it has performed a desired behaviour.
It is a positive method of training that requires no physical force, correction
or punishment as compared with traditional training. With clicker training, the
trainer marks the instant a particular behaviour happens with a click (the
`conditioned reinforcer') and pays it off with something the animal wants, or
the `primary reinforcer' (in the present case, with llamas, high-preference
food like pellets and lower-preference food such as carrot and apple were
used). If the animal makes a mistake, the trainer only has to wait for it to
try again. Clicker training focuses on building positive behaviours, not
stopping negative ones. For instance, instead of yelling at the llama for
kicking or dragging on the lead, the trainer clicks the llama for being still
or walking calmly. Click by click the behaviour is shaped for longer periods of
being still (i.e. not kicking) or walking sensibly on the lead. The animal
quickly learns that the sound of the clicker brings reinforcement, and gradually
an unwanted behaviour is eliminated, simply by building another, wanted
behaviour. This article aims to show how this method of positive reinforcement
was able to develop consistency and reliability of different behaviours in
llamas at Auckland Zoo (New Zealand) to enable more efficient daily management.
Training began by teaching the
`bridge' association. This involved bringing the llamas into a concrete yard
and clicking the clicker before offering a favoured piece of food. Sessions
were kept short, five to ten minutes, and finished before the llama became
uninterested or unfocused. When the animals were actively looking for food at
the sound of the click they were considered ready for training.
One particular llama stood out and
progressed the quickest with the training programme. Three-year-old Genevieve
(Gen) has responded better than the older animals and has shown the most
enthusiasm. Because of this I concentrated most of the effort on her, while
maintaining targeting and general handling for the two older animals. All the
llamas were haltered for every session.
Simple targeting
Targeting is the simplest way to
open up a channel of communication with your animal. It provides opportunities
to teach new behaviours and asks little of the animal in return for something
positive. It can be used to teach new behaviours and manipulate the animal into
particular positions or areas.
A tennis ball on a wand was used as
a target stick. Initial investigations of the target were rewarded, gradually
asking the llamas to follow the stick and hold it for longer periods. After a
short time we were able to weigh the llamas regularly simply by getting them to
follow the target onto the scales. We were also able to get them to utilise
different aspects of their enclosure, such as hillocks and other areas where
they wouldn't normally go. The youngest llama, Gen, followed the target at
speed around the enclosure, jumping over obstacles and running up and down a
rocky mound and over logs. Not only was it great exercise, she appeared to
thoroughly enjoy it, which is often reinforcing in itself.
If the situation were to arise, we
could utilise targeting to assist with medical or husbandry procedures, such as
clipping or being held in a crush, getting the llamas to hold onto the target
while the procedure is performed. Not only does it keep the animal relatively
still, it is something familiar and positive during a time of discomfort. This
has been employed with other animals at Auckland Zoo, such as giraffe in electro-ejaculation
procedures and sea lion in biopsy treatments. Six months into the training
programme, all three llamas were transferred out of the zoo to a llama farm.
This involved transporting them on a float for the first time, with only a very
short time for conditioning. Targeting was used to get the animals onto the
float both individually and as a group and worked extremely well, particularly
with the older animals. Targeting was also used to start the teaching of new
behaviours such as `kushing' (lying down, a submissive posture in llamas),
which will be discussed below.
Husbandry applications
Examining feet is a husbandry
priority with many captive animals. Llamas have a leathery pad (not a hoof)
similar to a dog's and are therefore potentially susceptible to foot injury or
foreign objects becoming embedded. Training for this behaviour began with a
touch stick (a soft-ended dressage whip) being used to get the llama
comfortable with being touched around the legs. As is typical of many horses,
the llamas had a `good' side and a `bad' side to work on. More work was done
with the bad side, to get the animal as comfortable being touched there as on
the good side. The touch stick was used to touch the legs prior to using the
trainer's hands in order to prevent injury to the trainer. Gradually a hook was
introduced – a modified cane with soft padding on the hook – to attempt to lift
the foot, but this was abandoned when it was found that it did not pick up the
foot as hoped. Prior to this, the llama was made comfortable having the front
legs touched by hand down to the knee. Work was then put into handling the legs
all the way to the foot, gradually applying pressure until the foot was able to
be lifted and examined. At first the llama was not comfortable with having her
foot lifted and would often kick the foot away or attempt to move away or kush.
This put the training back a few steps. When the llamas left the zoo, picking
up the left foot had been achieved and touching to the toe of the right foot.
Mouth and teeth inspection
Examination of the teeth is another
important husbandry routine that was simple to teach and did not require the
llama to step too far out of the comfort zone. First, reinforcement was given
for allowing the trainer to touch the bottom lip, gradually progressing to
applying pressure and pulling the lip down to examine the bottom teeth. The
trainer's other hand was slowly introduced towards the top lip for a more
complete examination, gradually enabling the trainer to open the top and bottom
lips simultaneously. The length of the behaviour was increased, allowing the
trainer a good look at the teeth and palate.
Kushing
Kushing is a natural behaviour of
llamas at rest. It can be used for a variety of reasons, for example during
travelling and for various medical treatments and procedures. Initially the
trainer got the llama to target to the ground, then the animals's head was
gently guided to the ground by stages, using the clicker at each stage until
she was putting her head to the ground at the touch of the lead. The next step
involved using the touch stick to gently touch a front foot, which encouraged
the leg to be lifted and bent – the first step llamas take when kushing. This
was reinforced until she kushed; then gradually the trainer reduced the use of
the touch stick and lead until kushing happened on cue with just a hand signal.
While the animal was down, another simple behaviour – `head down' – was taught,
again using the target and gradually moving to a hand signal. Gen became comfortable
with being handled and targeting while down.
Other behaviours
`Rubbish behaviour' was something we
played around with to maintain interest and variety. There was no pressure to
accomplish it as with the husbandry behaviours. A piece of rubbish was shown to
the animal, gradually getting the llama to take it in the mouth and let go. The
idea behind this behaviour was to be able to eventually point to a piece of
rubbish on the ground (in a classroom setting) and cue the llama to pick it up
and place it in the bin or the trainer's hand. The focus of this behaviour was
on the educational value of the message. Once the rubbish was in the llama's
mouth, duration was encouraged. Initially the piece of rubbish used was a
screwed-up piece of paper – until it was eaten! It was then replaced with a
plastic lid.
Overall the training was extremely
beneficial and fun for both animal and trainer. All aspects of the training
made life easier – and at times safer – for all concerned, as well as enriching
the lives of the llamas. Many of the behaviours taught were to eliminate or
discourage `bad' behaviours that had inadvertently been `taught' to the llamas
throughout their lives prior to training. This made daily management of all
three animals much easier and more enjoyable. The llamas are very much missed
at Auckland Zoo, but to know that the training enhanced their lives while at
the zoo and will be continued at their new home makes it all worthwhile.
Amy Dixon, Keeper,
Elephants/Carnivores, Auckland Zoo, Motions Road, Western Springs, Auckland 1,
New Zealand (E-mail: AmyDixon@aucklandcity.govt.nz
).
* * *
ANIMAL MANAGEMENT AT AUCKLAND ZOO.
2: THE SPRINGBOK CONDITIONING PROGRAMME
BY ASHA RODGER-BARBATO
Traditionally the capture of small
antelope has involved predator/prey-like scenarios, either through pursuit with
nets or into funnel traps, or by darting – all of which are extremely stressful
to any animal. All antelopes are prey species, so they are highly adapted to
flight. They can sustain great speeds for long periods. Pursuit of an antelope
is never an easy task, and there are many risks involved:
– The
animals may injure themselves, sometimes fatally;
– The
pursuer may also be injured;
–With hoofstock there is a high risk
of the captured animal developing capture myopathy, an often fatal syndrome
that occurs from one day to four weeks post-capture (Basson and Hofmeyer,
1973);
–With adrenaline pumping long before
any medical attention, the effect of any drugs used is likely to be decreased.
Generally, when we need to capture
an animal it is either to transport it or to implement a number of husbandry or
medical procedures. So we can safely assume that what occurs after capture will
add more stress to an already stressful situation. Why not reduce some of that
stress by making the capture of the animal almost voluntary? This is possible
with conditioning. Auckland Zoo currently
holds six springbok (Antidorcas marsupialus). Our springbok are
conditioned to come in each day from their paddock into their house, where they
are closed in. Once closed in the house they are encouraged to move freely
between the two sides through a transport crate which is permanently set up.
Passing through this crate has become a familiar route for them to take. When
an individual animal requires attention, the group is brought into the house,
then the other animals are gradually let out until only the subject is left.
Conditioning is most successful when
done frequently and regularly. Our springbok are locked in their house for at
least 30 seconds every day. Our conditioning aims are as follows:
–The animals come when called and
follow a keeper who is shaking a bucket of food;
– The
animals are comfortable in their house;
– The
animals are comfortable going through the crate;
–Ultimately we are reducing stress
to only the absolutely necessary minimum, i.e. that involved in the actual
medical treatment.
The method of conditioning
Step One: A comfortable place to
go. The place into which they are locked (their house) is a place where
they go regularly to feed. When they first came to the zoo they were given
access only to the house and yard for a few weeks. This was so that they had a
familiar base, a safe place to go back to once they were given access to a
larger area. Fresh hay is always available to them here.
Step Two: A reason to move.
Food is used to move them from one place to the other. It has to be a food that
they really enjoy and don't get a lot of. We condition our springbok using
multi-nut pellets. Between six animals they are given half a kilo a day. With
pellets in a bucket we go into the paddock to find the springbok and call out
to them, shaking the bucket. This signals to them that they will be getting
pellets soon and they begin walking to the house.
Step Three: Entering the house. The
springbok house has two entrances, one to each stall. In order to give us more
time to shut them in, one door is already closed before they enter the house.
Generally we scatter their pellets on the side with the closed door. This means
that to reach their pellets they must go through the crate, conditioning them
to be familiar with it. When the springbok are inside, the open door can be
gently closed. Now the animals are locked in their house.
Once they are inside we can manoeuvre
the doors, letting the animals out until we are left with only the desired
individual in the house. For mechanical restraint the crate is shut on one
side. A keeper can now slowly enter the house with the springbok. The animal
naturally wants to avoid us and sees the crate as an escape route, so will walk
into it freely. Once it is in the crate, a keeper must quickly put a hand on
the springbok so that it does not back out. The animal is now restrained and
hands-on care can be performed.
It should be mentioned that once
restrained in the crate our springbok tend to sit down. This must reduce stress
even more, and it also reduces the chance of injury to the animal. Another
benefit of using this method is that the horns are facing away from the keeper,
preventing any possible injuries to humans. On some occasions we have given
medical attention whilst the animal was not under anaesthetic. If we need to
check their heads we can do so quite safely with a person holding the horns at
the base.
For reasons of stress avoidance we
do not restrain an animal while others are in the house. When more than one
animal needs to be seen to, we merely repeat the process of bringing the group
into the house and allowing others to leave until the subject animal is left. Our
springbok are so strongly conditioned that we can bring them into the house
repeatedly as we require.
Using this method of conditioning
and restraint, we can easily administer drugs, give body checks, and crate for
transport. The darting of animals merely for immobilisation is completely
eliminated, so we do not need to put unnecessary drugs in their system.
Springbok are highly alert animals
and quick to spot changes to routine. As this is a daily process, it is
important that we vary the time of day at which they are conditioned inside.
Something as simple as the time of day can affect the success of locking the
animals in.
There are many elements that can
hinder the whole process or put more stress on the animals than is necessary.
Here are a few hints to avoid such situations:
– When
trapped most antelopes will head towards the light.
For this reason the windows in the
springbok house are darkened. Any gaps in the crate are also blocked to avoid
light getting through. Whilst restrained, it is a good idea to throw a dark
cloth over the animal's eyes to lower stress levels.
– Springbok
are inclined to jump as part of their flight response.
To avoid them injuring themselves,
remove any objects in the house that could cause more harm.
– Ensure
that all staff involved are aware of the plan before commencing.
Make sure that everyone is ready and
sure of their part in the process. Strange noises, new faces, objects or
movement can all affect how the animals will react to the conditioning process
on the day. Once an animal becomes suspicious, it is much harder to deal with.
– Don't
leave them in the house for too long prior to catching up.
They will become uptight if left in
a confined space for too long, and will be quite stressed before you have even
entered the house.
– Don't separate the animals too
soon.
Being herd animals, they feel much
safer when with their companions. From the moment an individual is alone it
will become suspicious and uptight.
Timing is very important to the
smooth running of the whole process.
Over the last two months we have had
to give medical attention to springbok on four different occasions. On each
occasion we used this method to restrain them. Our springbok are so strongly
conditioned to coming inside their house that we can bring them in as many
times as we need to during one day. It is a good idea to repeat the
conditioning process soon after a procedure, just quietly, so they remain
comfortable with it and don't associate the house with a bad experience.
Conditioning animals is pretty
simple – quite often we condition them without knowing it, and at other times they
are conditioning us. By conditioning our springbok to co-operate in
their own capture we have greatly improved our management of them. By not
subjecting them to predator/prey-type pursuits, I believe we have also
developed an element of trust. Conditioning is a powerful animal management
tool. As long as we are consistent in our method and the animals are given a
reason to co-operate, we can improve their quality of life.
Reference
Basson, P.A., and Hofmeyer, J.M.
(1973): The Capture and Care of Wild Animals. Human and Rousseau, Cape
Town, South Africa.
Asha Rodger-Barbato, Auckland Zoo,
Motions Road, Western Springs, Auckland 1, New Zealand (E-mail: Asha.Rodger-Barbato@aucklandcity.govt.nz
).
* * *
CARL HAGENBECK'S PLANS FOR ROME ZOO
– AND WHAT BECAME OF THEM
BY SPARTACO GIPPOLITI
References to the philosophy of Carl
Hagenbeck are largely limited to his own biography (Hagenbeck, 1909) and to the
Stellingen Tierpark in Hamburg, the zoo that is still a family business of the
Hagenbecks. At the Stellingen inauguration on 7 May 1907, only part of the
Tierpark had been developed, including two of Hagenbeck's famous `panoramas',
now usually referred to as the Africa and Arctic panoramas (Reichenbach, 1998).
Furthermore, much of the park was destroyed during allied bombing in 1943.
Despite this, there is no doubt that Hagenbeck played a key role in the
development of modern exhibition criteria for zoos, a statement confirmed by
all recent zoo planners and historians (Coe, 1995; Ehrlinger, 1990; Hancocks,
2001). A number of zoos have been referred to as `Hagenbeckian', but mostly
they developed through the work of other members of the Hagenbeck family and
team. As I have written previously (Gippoliti, 1997), Rome Zoo appears to be an
exception, as it developed from the direct involvement of Carl Hagenbeck and
his Stellingen team, particularly Heinrich Hagenbeck, Moritz Lehmann and Urs
Eggenschwyller. Furthermore, the almost complete fulfilment of the master plan
and the good climatic conditions of Rome may help to elucidate Carl Hagenbeck's
own philosophy concerning zoo exhibition and planning, as Hagenbeck himself
recognised: `I have promised to make you a garden which will be even more
interesting than my own garden at Stellingen, because, thanks to the excellent
climate, I can make it more beautiful by combining zoology and botany in a way
which is impossible for me here in the North' (Anon., 1908a). These words emphasize
the importance Hagenbeck gave to planting and gardening in creating the
illusions of the earth's major biomes. In fact, he planted vegetation even
inside an exhibit, as photos of the lion grotto show.
For several reasons, most of the
original Rome Zoo as Hagenbeck conceived it had a short life. Nevertheless, it
seems quite interesting to illustrate what is left of this little-known project
led by a major figure of zoo history. The main sources of information are the
1911 map of the zoo and the Hagenbeck master plan map published for the 25th
anniversary of the zoo (Anon., 1935), plus other documents of the early years.
After securing the advice of Carl
Hagenbeck, a Society for the Zoological Garden was founded in Rome at the
beginning of 1909. It received from the municipality an area of about ten
hectares at the Villa Borghese park. A conference, presided over by the Queen
Mother, was held on 12 November 1908 to introduce Carl Hagenbeck and his
project to the Romans. Work began in May 1909 and was almost completed by
October 1910, in time for the Universal Exposition of Rome in 1911. The
original Hagenbeck master plan is shown in Fig. 1. At the inauguration, on 5
January 1911, the area for animal shows had not been completed (and it never
was, which was – according to some fellows of the Society – one of the primary
causes of the zoo's later financial problems), and there were several
deviations from the original plan. However, the core of Hagenbeck's panoramas
follows the original plan (Fig. 2). As in Stellingen, most of the exhibits had
their common focal point toward the restaurant – where the Museum of Zoology
now stands. An area for temperate species such as ibexes, bears and (not
realized) wolves on one side of the park was the most important addition
compared to the Stellingen Tierpark. Two large aviaries for birds of prey were
also created – vultures were kept chained on the top of rockwork at Stellingen.
Also notable is the construction of four moated grottos for tropical carnivores
– there was only one in Stellingen for both lions and tigers. The two largest
were for lions and tigers, and the two smaller ones for leopards and hyenas.
This appears to have been the first successful attempt to build an open-air
enclosure for leopards. I was unable to find a picture of the leopards in their
grotto, but a group of them, plus a puma, were said to be living there in 1911
(Knottnerus-Meyer, 1911). A cage for two leopards first appeared only in 1913,
and later their moated enclosure was occupied by lions – why is not recorded.
The artificial rockwork enclosing the original leopard exhibit still today
extends particularly far forward, a measure not adopted at all for the lion
grotto and only moderately for the tiger one. Just below the great artificial rocks,
the enclosures for giraffes, antelope and zebras were visible. Possibly, these
animals were considered by Hagenbeck too precious and delicate to be held in
multi-species exhibits. A detailed study of vistas and sight lines around the
zoo was put into effect as part of the project. Obtrusive buildings and cages,
such as those for pachyderms and reptiles, were situated along the edges of the
panoramas and, in the case of the reptile house, `covered in bamboo'
(Knottnerus-Meyer, 1911).
It is evident that Hagenbeck made no
attempt to create zoogeographically coherent exhibits, as is sometimes stated
(Coe, 1995). As in Stellingen, the great enclosure for hoofed stock in front of
the carnivores' grottos, known as `the Paradise', contained both domestic and wild
species from various biomes (nilgai, llama, Bactrian and Arabian camels,
domestic goat, yak). Ironically, it took on a more African appearance only
years later when, subdivided into several enclosures, it held zebras and
African wild ass. Even in the master plan, no attempt was made to separate
African from Asian animals; in fact a single exhibit was destined for lions and
tigers and, more importantly, all major African savanna animals have separate
enclosures around the carnivores' grottos, not in the large front enclosure!
Possibly, confusion concerning this matter originated from later innovations
introduced in Stellingen by Carl's son Heinrich.
The more conventional buildings
really were `conventional', the elephant and reptile houses in essence resembling
nothing more than industrial buildings of the time. Possibly for economic
reasons, outdoor enclosures for elephants were really small compared to the
areas reserved for, say, kangaroos and zebras; but, at least, all stalls had an
outdoor enclosure. It should be remembered, however, that Hagenbeck's
philosophy relied so greatly on animal training that no elephant enclosures
existed in Stellingen at the time (Anon., 1908b). Interestingly, small outdoor
cages were available even for some reptiles. From the beginning, the reptile
house presented many problems, especially concerning the ability to maintain a
high indoor temperature (Knottnerus-Meyer, 1914). As in Stellingen, its
interior design and the terrariums resembled those of a natural grotto. All buildings,
except the ape house, were without a heating system, which caused severe
problems when several were installed in 1913 and 1914 in different buildings
(Knottnerus-Meyer, 1914). Another major problem of the first years was the
almost total absence of shade for both animals and visitors, a problem perhaps
overlooked by Carl Hagenbeck but a serious one in sunny Italy. Incidentally,
Hagenbeck's overlooking of microclimatic conditions is also demonstrated by the
choice to expose the polar bear exhibit in a fully south-facing position. Tree
planting began immediately with the first director, Theodor Knottnerus-Meyer,
but with time their growth contributed to obscuring the overview of the zoo
from the Zoological Museum.
Both the master plan and its effective
realization highlight the informal design of the whole park – the only straight
road, `viale dei pappagalli', being part of the ancient Villa Borghese layout.
A great equilibrium seems to exist between the enclosures and the areas in
between. Plants are extensively used to conceal some major buildings, such as
the giraffe, ape and reptile houses. Major visible buildings were designed in
the exotic styles then fashionable: the elephant house was `Egyptian' and the
reptile and ostrich house `Turkish'.
Even if the moats were well
camouflaged, a little-known detail of Hagenbeck planning was to offer the
public more than one view of an exhibit. In Stellingen, the Arctic panorama
could be viewed both from the main path and from above (Reichenbach, 1996), while
it was also possible to come close to the moat of the lion grottos by paying an
extra fee (Reichenbach, 1998). In Rome too a small path led to the edge of the
lion moat, while the map of 1911 suggests that the brown bear exhibit could
also be viewed from above at the back..
Severe criticism of progress in
construction had already led to the resignation of the Society's president,
Senator Giorgio Sonnino, in April 1910. The ornithologist Prince Francesco
Chigi replaced him. By the late 1920s, the poor condition of the original
rockwork had already led to its removal – as in the case of the `Cervino
Mountain' for goats – or restoration with some modifications. The loss of many
animals, such as the ibexes of the Cervino from parasitic infestation, was directly
linked to design faults, which did not allow the regular checking and
separation of the animals. Some of the large grottos – for bears, tigers and
hyenas – were greatly reduced in size. Of the few original exhibits that
survived, some, like those for lions or brown bears, have been greatly modified
during recent years, being evidently not considered worthy of special
protection. The old pachyderm house now needs urgent renovation. But even if
shortage of money and time made Hagenbeck's Rome Zoo a somewhat ephemeral
creation, this does not detract from the ingenious nature of the general plan
originally proposed and realized there by Carl Hagenbeck's team.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank A. D'Alessandro, H.
Reichenbach, K. Gille and N. Gould for their valuable help.
References
Anonymous (1908a): Istituzione di
Giardino Zoologico in Roma. Rome.
Anonymous
(1908b): Führer durch Carl Hagenbecks Tierpark in Stellingen. Hamburg.
Anonymous (1935): Il Giardino Zoologico
di Roma nel suo venticinquesimo anniversario. Palombi, Rome.
Coe, J.C. (1995): The evolution of
zoo animal exhibits. In The Ark Evolving: Zoos and Aquariums in Transition
(ed. C.M. Wemmer), pp. 95–128. Smithsonian Institution Conservation and
Research Center, Fort Royal, Virginia.
Ehrlinger, D. (1990): The Hagenbeck
legacy. International Zoo Yearbook 29: 6–10.
Gippoliti, S. (1997): A contribution
to the history of zoos in Italy up to the Second World War. International Zoo News 44 (8): 458–465.
Hagenbeck, C. (1909): Io e le belve.
Quintieri Editore, Milan.
Hancocks, D. (2001): A Different
Nature: The Paradoxical World of Zoos and their Uncertain Future. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Knottnerus-Meyer, T. (1911): Guida
ufficiale del Giardino Zoologico di Roma. Armanino, Genoa.
Knottnerus-Meyer, T. (1914): Relazione
tecnica sul Giardino Zoologico di Roma per l'esercizio 1913. Rome.
Reichenbach, H. (1996): A tale of
two zoos: the Hamburg Zoological Garden and Carl Hagenbeck's Tierpark. In New
Worlds, New Animals: from Menagerie to Zoological Park in the Nineteenth
Century (eds. R.J. Hoage and W.A. Deiss), pp. 51–62. Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore.
Reichenbach, H. (1998): Hagenbeck at
150. International Zoo News 45 (8): 468–475.
Spartaco Gippoliti, Viale Liegi 48A,
00198 Rome, Italy. (E-mail: spartacolobus@hotmail.com )
*
* *
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
Dear Sir,
You hit the nail firmly and squarely
on the head in your riposte to the assertion that `animals that roam over large
territories do not take kindly to being confined' (Editorial, Vol. 50, No. 7),
as you bring up several good points that, in my view, should be more frequently
fielded against the `antis'.
Yes, certainly some species do
instinctively travel long distances, such as the southern right whale which
moves northwards into warmer waters at the time of parturition, and the
wildebeests who make their famous migrations for reasons still not fully
understood, while some birds – the raven immediately springs to mind here –
perform aerial acrobatics that, not being nuptial rituals, are apparently for joie
de vivre, but these examples are relatively rare.
A favourite cliché, regularly
trotted out by the `antis', is that the African elephant travels on average
fifteen miles per day, but obviously this isn't done for fun or exercise, but
rather through the ever-present need to procure food on the part of one of the
most wasteful of all feeders (which, indeed, is nearly a biological failure on
account of the relatively small percentage of its food it's able to digest).
Similarly, no carnivore will voluntarily move about after it has killed and
eaten. I could go on ad infinitum, but your editorial has already done a good
job here: it merely seems strange to me that more is not usefully made of this
most elementary fact.
For completely different reasons, I
was also most interested in the article `The Itinerant Ark. . .', as I
pioneered work of this nature, in this country at least, back in the early
1950s – see my book One Man and his Animals (Clam Publications, 1999).
The author made much of the `stress' potentially suffered by animals used in
work of this kind. Now, like most of my generation, I do not quite know what
this relatively new term implies, but as far as I can gather it means
fear/upset/uncertainty/discomfort – correct?
A species quoted in some detail was
the chinchilla – one I used to use a great deal, for the simple reasons that
(a) it's so steady and (b) there's so much to say and explain about it.
(Conversely, there were some animals I never used – for example, most species
of mongoose, as their unremarkable behaviour means there's not much to say
about them!) I often handled a chinchilla two or three times a day, for three,
four or even five consecutive days – and never, ever, did I observe, or the
animal suffer from, the potential symptoms listed in this article. Had they
been manifest, obviously I'd have `retired' the creature forthwith. Of what
might be termed `handleable' reptiles, I encountered this sort of problem only
with certain lizards, such as mastigures, iguanas and lacertids (so no apparent
common denominator here), and among birds I found owls and the larger parrots
eminently suitable, although, interestingly, amazon parrots and cockatoos took
to it more stoically than African greys, so these were discontinued. Parakeets,
lovebirds and the like were useless for the purpose, as I had an unbreakable
rule that nothing was ever shown in a cage, which was part of a deliberate
policy to indicate that one could be on good terms with the animals one worked
with.
It perhaps isn't out of context here
to remark on an anomaly that has intrigued me ever since I employed
keeping-staff back in 1955. Basically, very basically, animals that are
devotedly cared for, diligently and selflessly, by intelligent, sensitive, well-educated
people are inclined to give far more trouble `psychologically' – suffer stress,
if you like – than those cared for by the more traditional type of keeper. Yes,
an unread, unshaven individual, with a `fag' in his mouth, who tossed food at
his charges while good-naturedly swearing at them – in other words, the very
sort of person you didn't want – never experienced any neurosis,
faddiness or jealousy among them – which is just the opposite of what one would
expect. Or is it?
Yours faithfully,
Clinton Keeling,
13 Pound Place,
Shalford,
Guildford,
Surrey GU4 8HH, U.K.
* * *
BOOK REVIEWS
BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION ON SELECTED
MAMMAL SPECIES (4th edition) edited by Jan Reed-Smith. American Association of
Zoo Keepers, 2003. 1,396 pp., CD-ROM. ISBN 1–929672–10–1. $25.00 (AAZK members)
or $40.00 (non-members), plus $5.00 airmail postage (outside U.S. and Canada).
Send orders to AAZK, Inc., 3601 SW 29th St., Suite 133, Topeka, Kansas
66614–2054, U.S.A., or use the on-line order form at www.aazk.org.
When I reviewed the third edition of
this work, then entitled Biological Values for Selected Mammals, back in
1993 [IZN 40 (8), 33–35], I subjected it to what I hoped was some fairly
constructive criticism, expressed a wish that its improvement and updating
should be a continuing process, and concluded, `I shall look forward to seeing
the fourth edition.' A decade later, here is the fourth edition, and
it's certainly better than its predecessor, though I feel it still fails to
realize its full potential.
The most obvious difference, of
course, is that the 1993 version was a fat ringbound book, whereas the present
one is a CD. Despite my lifelong addiction to `real' books, I can see that this
change brings many benefits for a reference source like Biological
Information on Selected Mammal Species. With the user-friendly Adobe
software (included on the CD, if you don't have it already), the book-quality
text is easy to view on screen or to print out as required. The cost saving is
enormous – try buying a new 1,400-page book for $40! And with the
efficient search facility, a few keystrokes take you straight to the topic you
want.
A further advantage ought to be the
ease with which a text of this sort can be altered or added to. Indeed, I
rather hope that the description `4th edition' is misleading – with CD books,
the concept of successive editions, each consisting of a finite number of
identical copies, should become obsolete. The publishers can hold a master
file, update it whenever they wish, and produce individual CDs to order, each
incorporating the latest version of the text. From a historical perspective, it
looks as if the Gutenberg revolution has at last run its course, and we may be
on the way back to a one-off method of book production in the medieval manner.
Ideally, then, the issuing of this
CD could initiate a collaboration between publishers and readers. On an
elementary level, the readers might repair any deficiencies in the original
proof-reading. Mistakes in scientific names are a minor obsession of mine, so
spellings like Ailurius fulgens, Hippopotamus amphibious and Camelus
dromedaries tend to hit me in the eye. But whereas in a printed text such
blemishes would be there for keeps, here it would be an easy matter to
eliminate most of them. And – much more importantly – additional material could
be inserted wherever needed.
The main body of Biological
Information on Selected Mammal Species consists of two-page accounts of 590
species, each set out on a similar plan. Headings for order, family and names
(scientific, U.S. common and `other') are followed by status in the wild, major
threats, historic and current distribution, habitat and circadian cycle. Then
follow sections, similarly subdivided under headings, on Size (head to rump
length, tail length, weight etc.), Reproduction (mating and birthing seasons,
courtship, gestation period etc.), Rearing and young (what the young are
called, number in a litter, condition at birth, age at weaning. . .), and
General (life expectancy, social structure, dental formula, diet. . .). Some
categories are omitted or added for groups with radically untypical body
shapes, like bats, but in general the standard layout is fairly rigidly adhered
to, even though not every category is appropriate to every species – how long
is a gorilla's tail? This means there are many inevitable blank spaces, which
unfortunately cannot be distinguished from those blanks which could in theory
be filled in, but aren't. (A trivial example of the latter is the omission of
the name applied to the young of platypus and echidna – `puggle', as any
assiduous reader of IZN would know.)
At first sight, I was surprised to find two
separate, near-identical entries for Sumatran and Bornean orang-utans (now
generally accepted as two full species, but with few if any significant
differences for practical purposes). But on consideration I decided this makes
perfectly good sense – it would be uneconomic in a book, but shortage of space
is a problem that doesn't arise in a CD publication. Two million words cost no
more to publish than one million. (Compiling them is still
labour-intensive, of course!) There are many other respects in which rules
established for printed texts don't have to be applied to computerized ones.
Indexes, for example, are largely superseded by the search facility – just as
well in the case of the alphabetical common-name index here, which irritatingly
lists animals only by their full English name, so that e.g. you find
nothing under `colobus', but instead separate entries for `Angolan
black-and-white', `eastern black-and-white', `western black-and-white', and
`western red' colobuses.
It would be interesting to be told
on what criteria the mammals included were `selected'. Common, or important,
zoo species would seem the obvious candidates. But in just a quick scan through
I found several animals which are currently in no zoo anywhere –
mountain gorilla, bay cat, Javan rhino. On the other hand, at least one group
of mammals familiar in zoos – the gibbons – are inexplicably absent.
This raises the general point of
what the volume is actually for; the answer supplied in the introduction
is, `To give the user a thumbnail sketch of the natural history of a species.'
But the user, presumably, will in most cases be a zoo professional, and the
rationale of the publication is to provide him or her with a series of handy
check-sheets of practical use in the day-to-day management of mammals in zoos.
`Natural history' or `biological information' should, then, be used in the
widest possible sense. What is needed, in fact, is what Heini Hediger described
as `zoo biology', which he understood as extending into every aspect of
an animal's management in human care. Biological Information on Selected
Mammal Species is excellent on the basic biology of wild mammals: if you
want to know the length of gestation in the pangolin, or the average size of a
wart hog litter, or the age at which a young aardvark is weaned, this is a good
place to look – and obviously, these are questions of a type continually encountered
in zoos. But the art of keeping captive mammals healthy, happy and breeding
involves much more than that; and it is on the specifically zoo-oriented
data that this CD seems to me to fall short. The pages on the cheetah, for
example, have no suggestions to offer on the management techniques most likely
to result in successful breeding. (Incidentally, they also contain the
astonishing statement that the king cheetah is `now believed to be a
subspecies'. It is in fact as certain as anything in zoology that this coat
pattern is controlled by a single recessive gene; and the authority quoted on
the CD, the latest edition of Walker's Mammals of the World, says
nothing to justify any other view.)
The cheetah is, of course, the
subject of an AZA Species Survival Plan. But you wouldn't learn this from Biological
Information on Selected Mammal Species – indeed, SSPs are only mentioned in
the references section right at the end of the work. A list of these
programmes, contact details of their coordinators, and any management
guidelines and other publications would be a fairly obvious addition to the
volume's appendices. The existing appendices, however, are a useful feature of Biological
Information. Brief explanations of CITES and IUCN status categories are followed
by a chart of common visual displays of bovids, helpful in understanding the
courtship behaviour of most artiodactyls, and a number of taxonomic lists – of
canid species and subspecies (the addition of common names and approximate
ranges would be an improvement here), pictures and notes on the 25 most
endangered primate taxa (contributed by the Primate Specialist Group,
Conservation International et al.), and taxa lists of lemurs and of
Neotropical and African primates. Primate taxonomy has undergone some big
changes in recent years, so the African data in particular, incorporating the
very latest consensus on the subject from P. Grubb et al.'s 2002 book An
Assessment of the Diversity of African Primates, are especially valuable.
If the AAZK took the opportunity to incorporate equally up-to-date information
on animal husbandry, Biological Information on Selected Mammal Species
would become an asset no zoo could afford to be without.
Nicholas Gould
THE AUSTRALASIAN HUSBANDRY MANUAL
FOR THE MALAYAN SUN BEAR (Helarctos m. malayanus) compiled by John
Pickard. Available as a printed document or a CD: for order details, contact
ARAZPA, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, NSW 2088, Australia (admin@arazpa.org.au).
This comprehensive, 200-page manual
is divided into six chapters covering everything from Housing requirements,
Husbandry and Behaviour training to Reproduction and Veterinary care. The EEP
Ursid Husbandry Manual, produced by Cologne Zoo in 1998, has provided a number
of the chapters that contain general bear data. In addition to each of the EEP
chapters, a number of useful articles and papers dedicated specifically to the
needs of sun bears are appended. As the EEP chapters are already very much in
the public arena, I have confined my comments to the additional data specific
to the sun bear manual.
The English version of the EEP Ursid
Manual is, apparently no longer available, so for those who did not procure a
copy first time around, this could be a good opportunity to access some useful
information. The Australasian manual is enhanced by the inclusion of some
excellent colour pictures of this smallest, and most fascinating, member of the
bear family.
The main chapter on housing has been
provided by the EEP. However, additional articles on sun bear housing by Trent
Russell of the National Zoo and Aquarium, Canberra, and John Pickard of
Wellington Zoo provide more species-specific information on the housing
preferences of captive sun bears. The comments section at the end of this
chapter contains some interesting observations, such as the sun bear's
preference for a view higher than the observing public. This idea fits in well
with the Malay name for the species, basindo nan tenggil, which means
`he who likes to sit high'. Comments also highlight the fact that these bears
are particularly sensitive to intrusive sounds around their dens and holding
areas.
Chapter 2 on feeding consists mainly
of the EEP chapter by Dr Kolter covering general bear diets. In addition to
this, details of the diets used at Wellington Zoo, including the quantities of
food offered, are provided.
Chapter 3 is on the ubiquitous
subject of environmental enrichment, and is headed by the EEP Manual chapter,
written by Jeremy Usher-Smith and Lydia Kolter. An article follows on the
enrichment programme at Taronga Zoo by Caroline Shemwell, who offers a way of
assessing enrichment using a points system. Useful and worthwhile tips on what
foodstuffs are used for enrichment are provided. Interestingly, sun bears are
not fond of the fish varieties of Whiskas tinned cat food – which shows that
they have similar tastes to myself. Ideas of stimulating play behaviour,
including the use of cotton bags stuffed with pot-pourri and fragrant oils
sprinkled around the exhibit, offer forms of olfactory stimulation for the
bears (and presumably counteract the fishy breath of those who did partake of a
tasty Whiskas snack). Gale Akerman, the Sun Bear Studbook Keeper for
Australasia, provides additional enrichment details from Adelaide Zoo.
Enrichment ideas for bears are very necessary in captivity and the additional
details in this section are worthwhile and imaginative. The compiler's comments
at the end of this chapter suggest that a good source of enrichment ideas for
sun bears can come from methods put forward for use with great apes – it's a
good point, and one that is worth further investigation. Hammocks for primates
are mentioned, and bears certainly do like to use these as nests in captivity.
I also wonder what level of complex manipulations bears are capable of. They
can certainly perform tasks with their paws that involve great levels of
dexterity, and it would be interesting to see what the limits are. I once
observed a tame sun bear in Thailand removing a key from a lock. The key had a
small loop of string hanging from it, and the bear deftly hooked the string
with one claw, plucking it straight from the lock. I was never able to find out
whether this animal's dexterity extended to replacing the key, and opening the
lock – in any case, not a trait to be encouraged in the captive bear
population!
The fourth chapter covers husbandry
and behavioural training. The introduction, by myself and Allan Reid, now of
Chester Zoo, is from the EEP Manual. Four articles follow. The first, covering
sun bear training at Perth Zoo, by Karen Brougham and Michelle Rouffignac, is
particularly instructive, with details of what can be achieved and,
importantly, highlighting problems that can arise during training sessions.
This case study would be of value to any keeper involved in bear husbandry and
is written in a step-by-step manner that is easy to follow. The second article
is in two sections by Sharon Holden (animal behaviourist) and Kerry Norris
(keeper) respectively, and is an update on the progress of bear training at Perth
Zoo. Both these sections are instructive and well worth a read. The third
article, by Jeff Grennan, Curator of Alma Park Zoo, Brisbane, covers the
training of an older pair of bears (around 20 years of age) for veterinary
inspection and treatment. Older bears in zoos can be problematic to examine and
treat, so it is heartening to know that animals of this age can be persuaded to
co-operate. An intriguing note at the end of this article informs on the
improvement in the condition of the Alma Park bears' feet and coat condition,
in response to the inclusion of `Sensi-care dog chow' in the diet. The final
article in this section, by Caroline Shemwell, is titled `Sun bears, from the
wild to captivity'. It covers in horrific detail the terrible practice of preparing
bear paw stew, involving cooking the live animal's paw on a hot plate. Not for
the faint-hearted. Caroline also mentions behavioural problems such as paw
sucking, humming and pacing, and suggests training techniques that can be used
to alleviate these undesirable traits. The compiler's comments at the end of
this section highlight the fact that captive bears are sensitive creatures who
need sympathetic handling. These comments are so true, and yet so often
ignored. Most of us in the zoo world accept that the needs of bears have not
been well catered for in captivity, and it is good that enlightened husbandry
routines are now available for people to put in place.
Chapter 5 covers reproduction and is
fronted by the EEP manual article on this subject by Karin Linke of Rostock
Zoo. An account of the successful breeding and rearing of twin sun bears by
John Pickard of Wellington Zoo follows this [see IZN 47 (5), pp. 284–296
– Ed.]. John covers in detail the pre- and post-partum behaviour of the
bears. When the female was separated from the male before the birth, her
appetite declined, slowly building up again after the birth of the cubs. The
diet offered to the female at this time is given, and with the possible
exception of the mealworms and locusts, sounds pretty appetising to me.
Observations on the female's methods of moving the cubs around are excellent. I
tried to imagine a sun bear striding through the forest on her hind legs, cubs
gathered up in her paws. Details of the introduction of the mother and cubs to
the adult male, the cubs' father, are also given. A useful critique of problems
that occurred with the use of the den area is given, with a view to making
effective change in the future. The importance of nesting materials for bears
is also covered, further emphasising how important it is to supply materials
for complex nesting-related manipulation. The author highlights the fact that
nesting behaviour increased prior to parturition. It's an interesting point
that not so many years ago it was thought to be a waste of resources to supply
bears with nesting materials. It would be nice to think that this opinion was
now confined to the past. This article ends with interesting comments by the
manual's compiler on the pros and cons of hand-rearing sun bears. His final
conclusions are, I think, quite correct – `While some zoos have succeeded in
physically rearing sun bear cubs. . . no one has managed to rear a
psychologically properly adjusted cub that knows it is a sun bear and behaves
like one. . .' That said, should such a scenario arise and a decision be made
to hand-rear a neglected cub, the next article by Caroline Shemwell gives the
details. She provides an exhaustive list of the materials and equipment
required, from stuffed toys, teats and rectal thermometers, to a ticking clock
wrapped in a towel, to soothe the cub off into a peaceful slumber. Details of
milk formulas and temperatures to feed it at are also supplied.
Chapter 6 is on veterinary care.
Julie Barnes discusses the fascinating and potentially lethal problem of tick
toxicity in sun bears, which causes progressive paralysis in its victims.
Prophylactic measures, diagnosis and the potential side effects of the
treatment are covered in detail. The next article, by Cree Monaghan and Simone
Vitali of Perth Zoo, presents a case study of a sun bear with intestinal
problems. Bacterial dermatitis, its causes and treatments, is covered next in
an article by Steve Mirams. Gale Akerman provides the Medarks report on a sun
bear's alopecia problems.
John Lewis provides the details for
the next paper on `The measurement of faecal progesterone metabolites to detect
and monitor pregnancy in sun bears'. John discusses the `attractive option' of
faecal samples to detect pregnancy in species where blood or urine samples are
difficult to obtain. Immobilising sun bears and the common ailments of bears
are the subjects of the next article by Pat Morris. This gives very useful
information on knockout drugs, including dosages. The paragraph on root canal
treatment for bears and the equipment used is excellent, but not for those
humans with a fear of the dentist's chair. And for escaping bears (perhaps
those trying to avoid root canal treatment), apparently nothing acts better
than a dose of Zolatil which, we are informed, can be administered in a
one-shot, low-volume dose.
Further comprehensive and practical
information from Patrick Morris on the `Chemical immobilisation of felids,
ursids and small ungulates' is contained in the next paper in this section. It
is heartening to see Pat mentioning the importance of physical restraint
techniques being retained by animal staff. It is all too easy nowadays to reach
for the knock-out drugs whenever contact with an animal is required. However,
many manual restraint techniques can be used safely to control and treat
animals in captivity – it would be a mistake to let these skills become
extinct.
The manual contains two appendices.
The first covers the IATA regulations for the transport of non-domesticated
animals. Many zoo staff involved in shipping livestock will be familiar with
this section. However, the compiler's comments are interesting and thoughtful,
regarding the psychological welfare of animals undergoing the 30-day quarantine
period required when shipping animals from New Zealand to Australia. Appendix 2
reprints the Sun Bear Conservation Action Plan by Christopher Servheen, a
chapter of the IUCN/SSC Bear Specialist Group's Action Plan. This includes
notes by Richard Salter on the status and management of the sun bear in Laos;
happily, the population here is thought to be relatively large, with sun bears
occurring in all of the main protected areas surveyed.
The Australasian Sun Bear Manual
is a good, worthwhile compilation of sun bear information. A number of sources
have been used to provide the data, creating a diverse range of styles
throughout. It is a must for all collections holding this beautiful and most
endearing member of the bear family. Information on sun bears is thin on the
ground, but this manual offers a good range of the pertinent data available.
Some years ago, while preparing a
lecture on the bear family, I stumbled upon snippets of information concerning
the sun bear. In Sir Stamford Raffles's Descriptive Catalogue of a
Zoological Collection made in Sumatra (1820), Raffles mentions that he kept
a sun bear as a pet in the nursery with his children. Raffles notes that the
bear was naturally playful and affectionate and would not drink any wine –
other than champagne. The only time the bear was `out of humour' was on an
occasion when his regular drink of champagne was unavailable. This seems like a
reasonable response from a refined and demanding creature, that knows how to
extract the most from life – if only given the opportunity.
Graham Law
University of Glasgow
* * *
CONSERVATION
New protection for seahorses
After a decade of work in the field,
in the laboratory and at the negotiating table, the Project Seahorse/Shedd
Aquarium Partnership for Marine Conservation has helped the world to recognize
seahorses – and, for that matter, all marine fishes – as wildlife, not just
commodities. In a landmark decision, all 32 known species of seahorses were
added to Appendix II of CITES.
At least 24 million dried seahorses
are traded as traditional medicines and souvenirs among some 77 nations each
year. Hundreds of thousands more end up in hobbyists' aquariums. Two-thirds of
seahorse species are now threatened due to poor fishing practices and habitat
damage. By the listing with CITES, the only authority governing international
wildlife trade, the 161 member nations agreed to regulate all cross-border
commercial trade in seahorses and ensure that wild populations are not
threatened. `This will probably be the single biggest wildlife trade issue
under international management,' says Dr Amanda Vincent of Project Seahorse.
Seahorses were among the first
marine fishes of commercial value to come under international management – a
precedent that should lead to improved respect for other fish species, many of which
face extreme pressures from over-exploitation. Dr Vincent served as the lead
scientific advisor and chaired the working group on seahorses for CITES. The
partnership of Project Seahorse and the John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, are
working with fishing communities, engaging consumers and sharing their
knowledge to minimize the social and economic disruption of the new trade
rules. For more information, visit www.projectseahorse.org
.
James Hrynyshyn in WaterShedd
Vol. 24, No. 4 (Autumn 2003)
Breeding feral birds from Hawaii
Many non-native species have been
established in Hawaii following deliberate or accidental releases, including
several bird species that are actually desirable zoological exhibits: Japanese
white-eye, red-billed leiothrix, red-crested cardinal and shama thrush are now
abundant in parts of Hawaii. These particular species are also recommended for
zoological exhibit by the Regional Collection Plan of the AZA's Passerine TAG.
In October 2002, aviculturists from
Audubon, Brookfield, Louisville, North Carolina and Toledo Zoos traveled to
Hawaii to collect feral passerines for exhibit. Over a period of four weeks, a
total of 162 specimens were collected from the wild in and around Honolulu.
Considerable logistical support was provided by Honolulu Zoo, including
facilities where the birds were acclimated to a zoo environment prior to
shipment. Nearly 100 of the birds were DNA-sexed (gratis, through a partnership
between St Louis Zoo and the Department of Biology at the University of Missouri)
before being shipped en masse to 14 AZA zoos. A great deal of field experience
was gained, as well as vital information that will be used in any future
collecting efforts. The knowledge gained from this type of work may possibly
take us one step closer to creating functional `extractive reserves' in parts
of the world where common animal and plant species can be found.
A year after this collecting effort,
it is gratifying to report that some of the birds have started to breed. The
first breeding occurred in June, when two red-crested cardinals successfully
fledged at Audubon Zoo, New Orleans. Also in June, Houston Zoo fledged two
red-billed leiothrix (pekin robins) in a mixed-species exhibit. Two of three
leiothrix chicks also successfully fledged at North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, in
August; and in the same month, two red-crested cardinals fledged in the
free-flight aviary at Detroit Zoo. Other institutions have also experienced
breeding activity but have not yet experienced successful fledges.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), December 2003
Reintroducing black rhinos to Zambia
Five (2.3) black rhinos were
reintroduced into Zambia's North Luangwa National Park (NLNP) on 28 May 2003.
The status of black rhino in Zambia prior to this reintroduction was `Presumed
Extinct', with the last confirmed sighting of an animal in the early 1990s. In
historical times Zambia was one of the species' most important range states,
and the Luangwa Valley, with an estimated population of up to 12,000 animals in
the early 1970s, was one of its strongholds in the country. The Frankfurt
Zoological Society (FZS) has been supporting the Zambia Wildlife Authority
(ZAWA) in the management and conservation of NLNP since 1986, and this
long-term partnership has resulted in effective security and management systems
being in place; so the reintroduction was a logical next step in conservation
activities in the park. A positive evaluation of the habitat and security of
NLNP by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Regional Program for
Rhino Conservation (RPRC) in 2001 set the stage, and a formal proposal by ZAWA
and NLNP was presented at the IUCN/SSC Rhino Specialist Group meeting in May
2002.
An area in the central part of the
park, straddling the Lubonga River, was chosen as the site for the sanctuary in
which the reintroduced rhinos would be released. The site's location was based
on historical distribution data for black rhino in NLNP, as well as security
considerations. A low-impact, four-strand electrified fence was erected to
contain the rhino in this 55-km2 area, while allowing for relative
freedom of movement for other animals. Additional ZAWA wildlife police officers
were seconded to the area, and received extra training to deal with rhino
security.
In an agreement mediated by FZS,
South African National Parks donated five animals to the Zambia Wildlife
Authority in exchange for two zoo-born black rhino calves from Frankfurt Zoo.
The animals destined for Zambia were captured in Marakele National Park and
Kruger National Park in March 2003, and flown to the park just over two months
later. During their time in the bomas in NLNP, they were outfitted with radio
transmitters in their horns, and received a trypanosomiasis inoculation, active
for three months, to ease their introduction into a tsetse fly area. Tsetse
targets and traps were also deployed at a low density throughout the sanctuary
area, and at a high density around the boma site, to initially reduce the
tsetse population and allow the rhinos time to develop resistance to the Trypanosoma
parasite.
The animals were released into the
wider sanctuary area from their bomas after a period ranging from two and a
half to four weeks, and have settled down well: none have broken through the
perimeter fence. Their movements were predominantly monitored by plane for the
first six weeks after release to keep disturbance to a minimum, although
monitoring by foot patrol will become more important in the coming months. Data
on the animals and their movements are being entered into the WildB database,
developed by the SADC RPRC program. This reintroduction of five animals is just
the first phase of the project, which aims to achieve a minimum of 20 founder
animals within NLNP within three years. The project has been a big step forward
for conservation in Zambia, as well as being a success for regional cooperation
in black rhino conservation.
Elsabe van der Westhuizen in Re-introduction
News No. 23 (November 2003)
* * *
MISCELLANY
A brief guide to the EC Zoos
Directive
Member states of the European Union
have an obligation to adopt measures for the ex situ conservation of
biodiversity under Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity 1992. It was expected that, in relation to animals, this obligation
would largely be fulfilled by existing zoos and aquaria. The EU's response was
to produce the EC Zoos Directive in 1999. The aim of the Directive is to
strengthen the conservation role of zoos by requiring member states to adopt
measures for the licensing and inspection of zoos. States were required to
comply by 9 April 2002 by adopting or modifying their own national laws.
The Directive currently applies to
the existing 15 member states (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden and the United Kingdom), but enlargement of the Union will potentially
increase this number to 28. (Current applicants for EU membership are Bulgaria,
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Turkey.) ISIS lists 206 European member
institutions (as at October 2003), and almost all of these will be affected by
the Directive, along with many other collections since the Directive applies to
`all permanent establishments where animals of wild species are kept for
exhibition to the public for seven or more days a year'. (Circuses and pet
shops are not covered by the Directive, and member states may also exempt other
establishments if the numbers of animals exhibited are small, provided that
such exemptions do not jeopardise the objectives of the Directive.)
Under Article 3 of the Directive,
zoos are required to implement the following conservation measures:
(i) participation in research from
which conservation benefits accrue to the species, and/or
(ii) training in relevant
conservation skills, and/or
(iii) exchange of information
relating to species conservation, and/or
(iv) where appropriate, captive
breeding, repopulation or reintroduction of species into the wild.
Zoos are also required, under
Article 3, to:
(i) promote public education and
awareness in relation to the conservation of biodiversity;
(ii) accommodate their animals under
conditions which satisfy the biological and conservation needs of the species
(by providing species-specific enrichment, maintaining high husbandry
standards, veterinary care and appropriate nutrition);
(iii) prevent the escape of animals
and the intrusion of outside pests and vermin; and
(iv) keep up-to-date records of the
collection.
In order to ensure that zoos comply
with Article 3, member states are required to adopt measures for the licensing
and inspection of zoos (Art. 4). All zoos must be licensed within a period of
four years after entry into force of the Directive, or in the case of new zoos,
before they are open to the public. Each licence must contain conditions to
enforce the requirements of Article 3, and compliance must be monitored by
means of regular inspections. If a zoo is not licensed or the licensing
conditions are not met, the zoo, or part thereof, may be closed to the public
by the competent authority.
Zoos may be given up to two years to
comply with any conditions imposed by the competent authority as a condition of
remaining open. In the event of a zoo closure, under Article 6 of the
Directive, the competent authority of the member state is responsible for
ensuring the appropriate disposal of the animals. Individual member states must
designate the competent authority for the purposes of the Directive (Art. 7),
and must determine appropriate penalties applicable to breaches of the national
laws adopted in order to comply with the Directive (Art. 8).
The Zoos Directive has the potential
to have a significant effect on the activities of European zoos, especially if
EU enlargement progresses as expected. However, most professionally run zoos
will have little difficulty in complying with the conservation provisions of
the Directive because many are not mandatory, but are merely offered as
alternative means of compliance. In theory a zoo with good accommodation and
husbandry standards could meet the requirements of the Directive by displaying
interpretive signs, keeping (and exchanging with others) records of its collection,
and occasionally breeding a few animals. The extent to which the Zoos Directive
will have any impact on conservation will ultimately depend upon the rigour
with which the competent authorities of the individual member states inspect
and enforce the relevant national legislation, and the guidance such
authorities are given by their own governments. By April 2003 eight of the 15
member states (Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain and
the U.K.) had failed properly to implement the Directive.
Dr Paul A. Rees, School of
Environment & Life Sciences and Telford Institute of Environmental Systems,
University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester, M5 4WT, U.K. (E-mail: p.a.rees@salford.ac.uk )
Second-generation elephant births
On 5 December 2003 a male Asian
elephant calf, Riccardo, was born at Ringling's elephant breeding compound in
Florida, the first second-generation calf to be born to circus elephants in the
U.S.A.; both parents were also born at Ringling's, in 1993 and 1995. Richard J.
Reynolds reports that according to information in the valuable European
Elephant Group publications [see IZN 47 (4), 242] there have previously
been six second-generation Asian elephant calves born in North American zoos.
These were as follows:
10 May 1975 – unnamed male calf, Los
Angeles Zoo. Sire, Packy, was born at Portland Zoo (now Oregon Zoo) on
14/04/1962 (the first elephant bred and born in the U.S.A. since 1918); dam, Me
Tu, was born at Portland Zoo on 3/10/1962. The calf died after falling into a
moat, 2/12/1975.
17 February 1976 – unnamed female
calf, Portland Zoo. Sire, Packy, see above; dam, Hanako, was born at Portland
Zoo on 24/09/1963. The calf lived only a month, dying at Portland in March
1976.
15 March 1978 – female calf Sumek,
Portland Zoo, same parents as preceding. This calf also lived only a month,
dying at Portland in April 1978.
19 May 1978 – male calf Kun Chorn,
Portland Zoo. Sire, Packy, and dam, Me Tu, see above. Kun Chorn went to
Dickerson Park Zoo, Springfield, Missouri, in 1980, where he is still living.
29 November 1998 – male calf Albert,
African Lion Safari, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. Sire, Calvin, was born at
Calgary Zoo, Alberta, Canada, on 11/08/1986; dam, Lilly (original name
Israela), was born on 31/01/1985 at Ramat Gan, Tel Aviv, Israel. Albert is
still living at African Lion Safari.
21 October 1999 – male calf George,
African Lion Safari, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. Sire, Calvin, see above; dam,
Phoebe (original name Vashti), was born on 15/05/1987, also at Ramat Gan.
George is still living at African Lion Safari. (In March 2000 breeding bull
Calvin was sent to Hannover Zoo, Germany, where he has sired two more calves.)
* * *
ANNUAL REPORT
BURGERS' ZOO, ARNHEM, THE
NETHERLANDS
Annual Report 2003
In 2003 Burgers' Zoo celebrated its
90th anniversary. This marked a starting point for the next phase in the
development of the zoo, which should be completed by the time it celebrates a
hundred years of existence. This year the reconstruction of Burgers' Safari
(the first safari park on the European continent) into a Tanzanian savannah
started. The first phase of the new indoor facilities comprises about 80 stalls
which are being built immediately adjacent to Burgers' Bush, the four-acre
indoor tropical rainforest hall. Visitors will be allowed to visit a part of
this accommodation. Before winter 2004 it is planned to complete the first
phase, which will house large herds of Grant's zebras, blue wildebeest (Connochaetes
t. taurinus) and Thomson's gazelles. The latter were acquired from Tel Aviv
Ramat Gan Safari during 2003. The first part of the facilities will also house
smaller groups of other species of antelopes. Along the walking trail visitors
will encounter other species. During 2003 an enclosure for Kirk's dik-diks (Madoqua
kirkii) was completed and four animals arrived from Hanover Zoo.
The most spectacular breeding
occurred in the bird department. For the first time a European black vulture
was successfully raised by its parents. Two years ago the parents produced
their first offspring, but this fell out of the nest at the age of six weeks
and did not survive. This year the offspring fledged and was sent to
Planckendael, Belgium. Also the wrinkled hornbills (Aceros corrugatus)
managed to hatch a chick, after several attempts in the previous year had
failed, though the chick died shortly before fledging.
Other noteworthy births included an
aardvark, a king vulture, a Eurasian griffon vulture, two European sea eagles,
seven green-necked pheasant pigeons (Otidiphaps n. nobilis), 14 hooded
pittas (Pitta sordida), four Baringo giraffes and five black-backed
jackals (Canis mesomelas). All these animals were raised by their
parents. Unfortunately a gorilla and a Sri Lanka leopard were stillborn.
The animal collection did not change
only in the former safari park; a lot of new species arrived in the other parts
of Burgers' Zoo. Apart from the dik-diks and the Thomson's gazelles, other new
species include European forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus) from
four Scandinavian zoos, swamp wallabies (Wallabia bicolor) from Asson
Zoo, France, and Zürich Zoo, little bitterns (Ixobrychus minutus) from
Warsaw Zoo, chukar partridges from Heidelberg Zoo, crested tinamous from
Wuppertal Zoo, greater prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido) from a
Belgian breeder and guira cuckoos from Zürich Zoo. The latter species have
already produced several offspring. Other notable transfers were: a
post-reproductive female Asian elephant from Riga Zoo to join two other old
Asian elephant cows, a young female white rhino from Whipsnade Wild Animal Park
and a male Angolan lion (P. l. bleyenberghi) from Lisbon Zoo. Apart from
all these acquisitions, no fewer than 340 mammals, birds and reptiles were sent
to 59 other collections in 14 countries.
Finally it should be mentioned that
Burgers' Zoo was officially appointed as coordinator for the Baringo giraffe
EEP (which includes Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi, G. c. peralta,
G. c. antiquorum, G. c. giraffa, G. c. angolensis and all
hybrid giraffes and those of unknown subspecies). For the EAZA Tiger Campaign
during 2003 a total amount of about Euros 10,000 was collected.
Marc Damen, curator
* * *
INTERNATIONAL ZOO NEWS
Audubon Center for Research of
Endangered Species, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.
On 6 August 2003, the world's first
cloned African wildcat was born to a common domestic housecat at the Audubon
Center. This monumental birth is a result of research conducted by scientists
from the Center and Louisiana State University Agricultural Center. The kitten,
named Ditteaux, is the first cloned wild carnivore and was created using
frozen/thawed genetic material from the African wildcat Jazz, was also born to
a domestic cat. Jazz's birth resulted from a different kind of procedure – the
first successful in vitro fertilized frozen/thawed embryo transfer which
was then transferred to another species. The birth of Jazz in November 1999 at
the Research Center made headlines around the world.
To create Ditteaux, scientists took
tissue samples from Jazz. These cells were grown in tissue culture to provide a
supply of thousands of cells, each with the wildcat's DNA, which were frozen in
the Frozen Zoo. Then, DNA was removed from an egg of a domestic cat.
Frozen/thawed cells from Jazz were inserted into the domestic cat egg cells.
The egg was exposed to an electric current, causing the new DNA to fuse with
the egg, which divided to become an embryo. The embryo was then implanted into
the uterus of a domestic cat surrogate named Brooke, who went on to have a
normal pregnancy before giving birth to the cloned kitten. The newborn is an
exact genetic duplicate of Jazz, and is being properly cared for and nursed by
his surrogate mother. Jazz continues to live at the Audubon Center, while his
surrogate mother, domestic cat Cayenne, was adopted by Dr C. Earle Pope, Senior
Scientist at Audubon Nature Institute. The two wildcats who donated the sperm
and egg to create Jazz are also living at the Research Center. An in-depth
explanation of the procedure, as well as pictures and video, can be viewed on
Audubon Nature Institute's website, www.auduboninstitute.org .
In addition, researchers at the
Center are announcing the birth of the world's first caracal created from a
frozen/thawed embryo. The kitten, created from an IVF procedure where the
frozen/thawed embryo was transferred to a surrogate mother caracal, was born on
6 September. She has been named Azalea, as she is a full sibling to the world's
first test-tube caracals, Camellia and Magnolia, also born at the Center in May
2000. In a third research breakthrough, Audubon Nature Institute is also
announcing the birth of a serval on 1 October as the result of in vitro
fertilization followed by embryo transfer. This new arrival is named Kruger.
Abridged from Communiqué
(American Zoo and Aquarium Association), December 2003
Banham Zoo, U.K.
The zoo has solved a long-standing
problem with the water quality in its South African fur seal pool by adopting
the latest technology – ordinarily used in commercial swimming pools. The pool
holds approximately 64,000 gallons [290,000 litres] of water, but due to the
size of the seals and the amount of fresh fish they eat daily, organic matter
in the pool was notoriously difficult to control. The entire volume of the pool
was filtered every 1.7 hours and the water totally replaced once a week. This
was largely because the staff were unable to add as much chlorine as they would
have liked, as the high doses needed would have been a health hazard to the
animals. Algal growth was also a real problem – especially in summer – as
enough chemicals could not be added to control the bloom.
The pool's sand filters were also
requiring back-washing two or three times a week. This, combined with the time
required to drain the pool and clean it, was becoming a real chore for the
staff. The pool took three hours to drain, up to five hours to clean and a
further 15 hours to refill. The seals lost a day in the pool, and it was also a
disappointment for visitors who came on the `change' day.
The assistant zoo animal manager,
Mike Woolham, consulted a pool consultant, who told him about a new water
treatment system called AquaKLEAR, and put him in touch with the suppliers,
Hydropath International (see www.hydroflow.force9.co.uk
). This system subjects water passing the unit to an electric charge which
causes particles to flocculate; bacteria are attacked and fixed chlorine is
broken down. The result is that the chlorine is free to kill bacteria and algae
but there are fewer potentially hazardous by-products such as chloramines.
Additionally, pools need to be backwashed less, as the larger particles sit on
top of the sand bed, rather than filtering down through the drainage channels;
this saves on energy, chemicals and staff time.
In April 2003, Mike agreed to trial
the unit for three months. This was a low-risk option, as the AquaKLEAR system
is simply attached to a relevant section of pipework in the plant room, with no
pipes needing to be cut. Within weeks Mike and his team noticed a big impact.
Previously the staff had only been able to switch on the automatic chemical
dosing system for a maximum of 1.5 hours, for fear of too much chlorine being
added to the water. Now the automatic unit is kept switched on constantly;
water quality has improved and much less chlorine needs to be added as free
chlorine is available in the water. Chloramine levels have also dropped, and pH
levels are now consistently around 7.5, whereas previously they were erratic as
staff tried to equalise levels after the addition of sodium hypochlorite.
`We now only need to backwash the
pool once a week,' comments Mike, `and have only had to drain the pool once
every three weeks over the summer and far less during the winter months. I was
very happy to keep the AquaKLEAR unit in use after the evaluation period. The
cost benefits have been considerable – not to mention the positive effects for
the fur seals.'
Bristol Zoo, U.K.
Nine Savu python eggs hatched at the
zoo in November, and the young snakes have now reached 30 cm in length, almost
a third of their adult size. The subspecies is a recent discovery, having first
been identified by researchers in 1993. On the one 100-km2
Indonesian island where it is found – the smallest geographical range of any
python – the snake is losing ground to agricultural development and pressure
from the exotic pet trade.
Orange when they first left their
eggs, the pythons will become progressively darker as they mature over the next
two or three years and will develop the white eyes which characterise the Savu
snakes.
Some experts regard them as a
sub-species (savuensis) of the Macklot's python (Liasis macklotti),
but Tim Skelton, head of reptiles at the zoo, believes their smaller size and
distinctive eyes mark them out as a separate species. `Once mature,' he says,
`the snakes will be transferred to other zoos across Europe to expand the
conservation breeding programme. Restrictions on the export of this python from
Indonesia are now in place. However, the need to establish captive populations
is becoming more important to ensure its long-term survival.'
Bristol believes its achievement is
the first successful breeding of Savu pythons in any European zoo. Mr Skelton
thinks he knows the reason for the zoo's success. `On my honeymoon I got
talking to the head reptile keeper at Singapore Zoo, and he told me that Savu
is not a humid place, as you might expect, but hot and dry, especially in the
summer. So I returned to Bristol ready to give the pythons similar conditions,
only to find the eggs had hatched the day before we got back. It had been a
hot, dry summer in the U.K., and if we get others like it we may have the same
sort of success. Otherwise we'll be turning up the thermostat a couple of
notches in 2004, from 30°C to 32° or 33° for three or four weeks. We don't
know whether the pythons are physiologically adapted to breeding annually, but
we have three males and four females, so we should be able to find out whether
we can repeat our achievement.'
Abridged from the on-line herpetological
newspaper HerpDigest, 11 January 2004 (www.herpdigest.org
)
Cerza Zoological Park (Centre d'Études et
de Recherches Zoologiques Augeron), France
(a visitor's report by Ray Cimino)
Occupying 52 hectares of pasture,
woodland and gently rolling hills, Cerza is typical of the landscape of
Normandy. It is situated about 8 km from the small city of Lisieux (famous for
St Thérèse's Basilica), and is open daily from February to October. Its owners,
Patrick and Thierry Jardin, opened the zoo in 1986, and today it attracts
240,000 visitors annually. In the attractive French-language guidebook (a
smaller photocopied booklet is available to English-speaking visitors free, but
beware, it doesn't contain a map!), the serious intentions of this park are
made clear, with pages devoted to explaining EEPs, CITES, the IUCN and EAZA.
And the animal collection backs this approach up, with relatively fewer common
species than would be found in most other zoos. For British `species-spotters'
in particular, there are numerous species either not found or only rarely seen
in British collections.
Three things sum up the Cerza
experience: the number of rare species, the many interesting mixed-species
exhibits and the, by any standards, very large enclosures, some of which are
the largest in Europe for the species they contain. You enter the zoo at the
African Plains, and while there are no unusual species here, the sheer size of
it is impressive. The visitor will notice that there are two colour-coded
walks, red and yellow. The red route takes you around the various other African
species, and then taking the yellow route you will come to the South American
and Asian zones, as well as a deer valley with barasingha, hog deer and
Indochinese sika deer. By and large species are seen in their geographical
areas, but there are a few exceptions.
In the rest of the African zone
there are large naturalistic enclosures for gorgeous striped hyenas, lion,
African wild dog, pygmy hippo and bongo, hamadryas and gelada baboons
(separately), and a superb wooded enclosure for a family of black panthers (not
strictly African, but who cares when mum, dad and May-born offspring are
running around and obviously having a great time?). My favourite, though, was
the electric-fenced woodland for African monkeys. Groups of patas, colobus and
de Brazza's monkeys living together, with interesting interactions between the
younger colobus and patas in particular. Because you are in the forest as well,
you are almost deceived into thinking you are in Africa.
The South American zone has three
large enclosures. Perhaps most interestingly, one is home to Brazilian tapirs
and maned wolf, and is also the main area used by a free-ranging group of brown
capuchin monkeys (sadly locked in on the day of my visit). Another huge
(400-m-long) enclosure contains more tapirs, as well as rheas, alpacas,
capybara and mara.
A large part of the park is given
over to Asian species. There are no fewer than three tiger exhibits (Sumatran,
Bengal and another pair one of which is white – a notice admits this is an
attraction rather then a conservation decision). A pair of very rare Sri Lankan
leopards completes the carnivore section. There are two species of gibbon, and
other interesting Asian species displayed either in this area or elsewhere
include Indian rhinoceros, banteng, brow-antlered deer and Persian fallow deer.
I would imagine that when first laid
out the zoo respected these geographical areas, but as any good zoo evolves it
has obviously been prepared to interfere with these zonings in order to
accommodate new species of higher conservation importance. What appears to be a
more recently developed area (I believe that the zoo owns some additional
adjacent farmland) demonstrates this well. It contains spectacled bears, lion-tailed
macaques, Alaskan wolves and – most interesting to my eyes – a pair of Iberian
wolves. These were only recently acquired from Madrid Zoo, and were the first I
had ever seen `in the flesh'. Their enclosure is strangely barren compared to
the rest of the zoo, but hopefully this will change. There are also several
brown bears in the zoo, rescued former circus and dancing bears. They are
severely stereotyped, but one can only hope they will learn to enjoy their huge
two-hectare retirement home.
As you can gather from the species
mentioned so far, this is a zoo dominated by medium-sized and large species.
There are a few smaller animals, though, including several marmoset and tamarin
species and some South American parrots in the only indoor area in the whole
park. For this reason be sure that you pick a dry day to visit! This is a large
and impressive animal collection. The only real flaw is the rather small and
poorly furnished indoor accommodation for most animals. But if you visit in
good weather and the animals are outdoors you will hardly notice this. There
are a number of good zoos in France, but this one is the most easily accessed
by ferry from Britain.
Cincinnati Zoo, Ohio, U.S.A.
Blue-and-gold macaws were once
plentiful in Trinidad, but were nearly wiped out in the 1960s, because of the
pet trade and habitat destruction. Today, however, the species is making a
comeback, in part because of work done by Cincinnati Zoo. A program to
reintroduce the bird to Trinidad's protected Nariva Swamp was spearheaded by
the zoo in 1999. Zoo workers trained local residents to document the birds'
flight patterns in the 15,000-acre [6,000-ha] wetland, inspect nesting sites
and monitor food sources. Nine wild adults have produced 12 chicks so far from
the program. In December, zoo officials helped in the release of an additional
20 macaws. Terri Roth, vice-president of animal sciences at the zoo, says the
reintroduction of macaws to Trinidad is important, even though the birds are
not considered an endangered species. `This is a species Trinidad once had but
lost,' she says. `The program is a flagship for conservation in Trinidad. It's
a project the locals have embraced, so the idea of just getting the community
excited about conserving their wildlife is important, because there is an
abundance of wildlife there that needs to be protected.' Also, this
reintroduction program is being used as a model for other species of parrots
around the world.
Delhi Zoo, India
The zoo is planning to start a
long-term breeding programme for the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), in
a bid to reintroduce the species to areas from which it has disappeared. Though
the birds are still widespread in the forests of northern India, they have been
completely wiped out in many areas due to extensive hunting and trapping for
their meat.
The zoo plans to keep its birds in
an off-exhibit breeding area, where special attention is being given to
recreating their natural environment. One of the biggest problems, however, is
contamination of the gene pool by interbreeding with domestic fowls, which has
already occurred. The zoo management must ensure that the birds being bred are
of the pure strain, which is still found deep in the forests where there are no
villages. So they are being extremely rigid about the origin of their birds,
and have started a ringing process with the help of the World Pheasant
Association.
Franklin Park Zoo, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Peracute mortality syndrome is a
wasting disease, not uncommon in giraffes, but still poorly understood. It is
not thought to be genetic in origin or contagious. Experts don't know why some
giraffes come down with it, but consider it uniformly fatal – no giraffe has
ever survived the syndrome.
So Beau, a six-year-old male giraffe
at the zoo, is beating the odds just by surviving. When he first showed signs
of the problem, zoo veterinarian Hayley Murphy decided to challenge everything
about the illness. `Everyone thought it was sudden – acute – because before
anyone knew anything was wrong, these giraffes would be down and dying or dead
when keepers came in in the morning.' Murphy believes the wasting actually
takes place over months; the first sign is usually when the giraffe stops
eating. But, in a herd that is fed communally, one giraffe not eating wouldn't
be obvious. And gradual weight loss on such a large, angular frame might go
unnoticed by the keepers who see the animal every day. (At the worst point for
Beau, who should weigh about 2,400 pounds [1,090 kg], he was down to 1,700 [770
kg].)
Yet for these sick giraffes, what is
happening is drastic: they don't keep much body fat in reserve, so once the
illness takes hold, the animal's health spirals downward. What's going on
inside is that the papillae, the finger-like projections inside the animal's
gut that absorb nutrients, begin to degrade and shrink. All kinds of important
internal chemical balances then start to go haywire – the pH of the rumen is
off, calcium is down, and the animals become hypoglycemic. The less the giraffe
eats, the sicker he gets, and the sicker he gets, the less likely he is to eat.
Perhaps over the course of several months, the animal becomes the `walking
dead', and then one day he goes down, usually for good, since getting one of
these huge creatures back up on his feet is nearly impossible.
As things worked out in Beau's case,
though, it appears the syndrome was caught in the early stages. Last March,
Murphy was walking by Beau's exhibit and thought he looked thinner. Sure
enough, on closer inspection, it turned out that Beau was off his feed. During
the warm summer he rallied, but he regressed by the time the chilly fall came
around. Veterinarian Ray Ball, an expert on the condition, was summoned from
Florida, and he confirmed Murphy's worst fear: that Beau was in the throes of
the syndrome.
As soon as they knew what they were
dealing with, Murphy and her colleagues went into action. Murphy e-mailed every
expert in the field, and gathered as much information as she could. The staff
tried everything to get the giraffe to eat, tempting him with a variety of
foods in addition to the usual vegetables, hay, and grain. Shelves of banana
crunch cereal were cleared from local grocery stores when there was a glimmer
that he liked it. Bales of leaves and branches were shipped from warmer states.
Murphy and another staffer even experimented at home with recipes that would be
high in fiber and nutrients and still taste like Beau's favorite food –
bananas. Murphy baked pizza dough rolled with grains, bran, and banana, and coated
with egg. (Beau didn't like it, but Murphy ate it, saying it wasn't so bad.) It
was touch-and-go for a long time; but with constant care (a keeper is with Beau
at all times to encourage his eating) he is now on the rebound. All that food
and Beau's remarkable resilience have brought him up to about 2,000 pounds [900
kg]. He seems to actually enjoy eating again, and the 40 pounds [18 kg] of food
he's averaging each day is close to the 45 pounds a healthy bull of his age and
size would be expected to eat. If Beau continues to improve, he'll change
scientific thought on the wasting syndrome, and Murphy will have pulled off a
remarkable feat.
Abridged and adapted from Boston
Globe (10 January 2004)
Loro Parque, Tenerife, Canary
Islands, Spain
We recently got three pairs of
purple-bellied lories (Lorius hypoinochrous) from a Danish breeder. This
species originates from south-eastern New Guinea and neighbouring islands, and
occurs in three subspecies. Although found in large numbers in the wild, these
birds are very rare in captivity; Loro Parque is currently the only zoo in
Europe which keeps them. After the quarantine period, two pairs will be
transferred to our breeding centre, and the third pair will be placed on
exhibit to give visitors the opportunity to observe this attractive species.
From a German breeder, we received
three young Ouvean parakeets (Eunymphicus cornutus uvaeensis). These
parrots, which are very rare even in their home range in New Caledonia, are
known to breed regularly in small numbers at only one breeding centre in
Europe, where our birds hatched this year; so, again, Loro Parque is the only
European zoo holding this species at present. After quarantine, they will be
transferred to the breeding centre where we hope to build up a healthy, viable
population of this species in captivity. With these new birds, the number of
parrot species and subspecies held at Loro Parque has increased to 348.
In `Planet Penguin', the first king
penguin has hatched and is being raised by his parents. The special thing about
this hatching is that the chick descends from a pair who, in 1998, were
hand-reared at Loro Parque.
Preparations for the next breeding
season include the bringing together of big flocks of parrots, to facilitate
new pair formations or to change existing pairs. So at present all our
non-breeding African grey parrots are held in a big flock. The 20-metre-long
aviary has separate aviaries at the sides equipped with nest-boxes. Once a
particular pair has chosen a nest-box and occupied it, the separate aviary can
be closed by means of a trapdoor and the new breeding pair is separated from
the rest. By forming pairs in this way we hope for better breeding results. A
group of 3.2 galahs (Eolophus roseicapillus) are also flocked in a group
in the same way, and a pair of white-tailed cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus
funereus baudini) have been put in with them. The mixed flocking of
different species does not result in any aggressive interactions, and should
illustrate that it is absolutely possible to hold different parrots together so
long as the aviary is large enough. Birds held in groups manifest extremely
active behaviour – they fly more often, and the interactions between
individuals facilitate a more varied behaviour spectrum than is shown by pairs
in breeding aviaries.
At the end of November, the director
of the Loro Parque clinic, Dr Lorenzo Crosta, travelled to São Paulo Zoo,
Brazil, to bring back a new male Spix's macaw in exchange for our `old male',
who has turned out not to be fertile at the present time. São Paulo holds seven
Spix's macaws at present, and Dr Crosta endoscopied the three possible males
and brought back the bird whose testes are most developed. After quarantine, he
should join the existing 11-year-female, bred at Loro Parque, hopefully for the
production of young.
Abridged from the reports for
October, November and December 2003 compiled by Matthias Reinschmidt, Curator,
Loro Parque
Louisville Zoo, Kentucky, U.S.A.
The zoo successfully hatched four
Cuban crocodiles (Crocodylus rhombifer) in July 2003. The sire is owned
by the Bronx Zoo and the dam, imported from Czechoslovakia in 1970, is owned by
Zoo Atlanta. This critically endangered species is threatened by hybridization
both in the wild and in captivity. The genus Crocodylus readily
hybridizes with congeners: Cuban crocodiles have successfully hybridized with
American crocodiles in nature, and with American, Nile, Siamese and Indian
mugger crocodiles in crocodile farms and in zoos. These hybrids are fertile,
and can wreak genetic havoc on attempts to maintain the biological integrity of
individual species in captive breeding programs. Managers are encouraged to
familiarize themselves with the morphological characters that distinguish this
species in order to prevent potential mishaps.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), December 2003
Monarto Zoo, South Australia
The female blackbuck seemed doomed.
Her right hind leg was completely lame, after a momentary but fierce
entanglement with a fence in our Asian grasslands habitat. What to do? If the
leg was fractured, the orthodox outcome would involve putting the animal down.
The incident had happened as we were
returning our blackbuck and nilgai to the grasslands habitat, which had been
rested and repastured over winter. Both species are naturally shy, and their
first steps into the newly re-opened habitat were cautious, especially with the
increased vehicular traffic. Unfortunately the female spooked and ran off into
the fence, hence our problem.
Rather than seek authority to
euthanase the animal, our new veterinary officer, Dr Ian Smith, came up with
another idea. The blackbuck was caught by a keeper and anaesthetised ready for
transportation to the animal treatment and wildlife centre at Kalibar. But on examination,
an anteriorly dislocated hip was diagnosed, and Ian decided to attempt the
manipulation then and there, on the back of the truck, out in the middle of the
zoo. She was tied down with ropes, and Ian, who has no chiropractic training,
used traction and rotation to put the dislocated hip back in place. The
animal's hind legs were hobbled together to minimise the risk of relapse, and
she was kept tranquillised in the small hospital yard to decrease stress.
Although she spent most of her time lying down, when standing she was using the
leg fully. After a week the hobbles on her legs were removed, and a further
week saw her return to the herd on exhibit. She now shows no ill-effects from
either her injury or the two-week absence from her herd-mates.
Chris Hannocks, Director, and Ian
Smith, Veterinary Officer, in South Australia's Zoo Times (November 2003
to January 2004)
Oregon Zoo, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Elephants at the zoo are stepping
more easily these days with the recent installation of new rubber flooring. The
floor was made possible by a $50,960 Conservation Project Support grant from
the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS). `The new rubber floor will
not only improve their lives, it may save them,' says zoo director Tony Vecchio.
`Foot diseases in elephants can be fatal. This grant pays for floor
improvements that may relieve some foot care issues.' The elephants are already
showing preference for the new floor – playing, exercising and sleeping more
easily on the soft surface compared to the old concrete floor.
A graduate student, Camie Meichsner,
is observing and analyzing the elephants' reaction to the new floor. While
elephant keepers have reported an obvious preference for the rubber floor,
Oregon is the first zoo in the world to do scientific research on foot-friendly
flooring and its prevention of potentially deadly foot problems. Over the
course of the installation of the rubber floors, closed-circuit cameras
monitored the behavior of the elephants. The video was then viewed by a team of
researchers, headed up by Meichsner, who are looking for behavior changes and
reactions to the rubber floor. They are also checking for preference between
the foot-friendly floor and the standard concrete.
In addition to supporting the flooring
installation, the IMLS grant will fund updates to an existing educational
display, incorporating data from this project and adding part-time interpretive
staff in the elephant viewing room to discuss the flooring project and elephant
foot care with visitors. The research on the flooring will include a medical
history for each elephant. Their feet are inspected for visible foot sores or
injuries, which are documented. Their feet are also X-rayed on an annual basis.
All of these records will be used to detect any change after extended exposure
and use of the rubber floor.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), December 2003
Reptile World, South Africa
Whilst travelling in South Africa
last year I was very happy to find a most impressive reptile display in Cape
Town. This display was situated entirely within a 13-metre trailer and parked
at the waterfront – Cape Town's
prestigious tourist area. The trailer was labelled as `Reptile World
mobile snake park', and that was exactly what it was. The trailer was
purpose-built with two air-conditioning units that kept its internal
temperature between 25° and 30°C. Purely for the comfort of the
animals exhibited, and at great expense, an air-suspension system operates on
the back axle. This means that most movement of the trailer is damped out as it
drives along. Practically it means that water pots need not be emptied before
driving off – and they are still full at the end of the journey! This mobile
display has been running for eight years, having first started in 1995 when the
owner, Neil van Heyningen, was forced to close his static Reptile World at
Worcester. Reptile World had been run successfully for a number of years and
was expanding when the local authority, who opposed the operation, granted
planning permission for a pub next door. Subsequently there was damage through
vandalism that led to the deaths of some animals, and Neil felt that he
couldn't continue there.
The collection being mobile enables
him to travel around the country and provide education about reptiles, reptile
husbandry and snake bites. The welfare of the animals is paramount, hence the
two air-conditioning units and a series of alarms in case the temperature goes
outside the set limits. The actual snakes exhibited are selected for their calm
dispositions, and are rotated regularly with animals kept at a static facility.
All snakes exhibited are captive-bred, and not necessarily African. The
American rattlesnakes are quite well represented, there are also king snakes
and milk snakes. The African snakes include the African rock python, boomslang,
puff adder and black and green mambas. The snakes are only ever removed from
the cases for cleaning and husbandry, and never in the presence of the public,
or for photographic opportunities. Admission is 5 Rand (about £0.45 or Euros
0.7) for adults and children.
On the two occasions that my partner
and I were present, Neil dealt with questions about keeping snakes as pets,
deterring them from gardens and avoiding snake bite on the farm. All were dealt
with courteously, at a level appropriate to the person asking the question. A
person with snake phobia who was being encouraged by friends to enter was also
dealt with sensitively and at a speed that they were happy with, despite
blocking the entrance for a few minutes whilst `preparing themselves' to enter.
Earlier in 2003 there had been a
letter published in Africa Geographic, the major
photographic/conservation magazine that is sold throughout southern Africa,
criticising the operation. The letter was pretty much the standard anti-zoo
tirade, questioning the educational advantage of such exhibitions and
suggesting that the animals must be suffering inside the mobile snake park. It
was obvious that the lady who wrote it had not been inside the trailer and was
very much reiterating the `party line'. The magazine, to its credit, had given
a copy of the letter (which interestingly was e-mailed from a London (U.K.)
firm of estate agents) to Neil to respond to. His response was published together
with her letter, and reading both together put Reptile World in a very good
light. It was also refreshing to see a conservation magazine being so fair in
its dealings with a small enterprise that is exhibiting animals.
Reptile World receives no state aid
whatsoever and is regularly inspected as it travels around because of the
requirements of the different provincial nature conservation services. It is
perhaps a lesson to all those who maintain that the travelling menageries were
the epitome of cruelty to animals, that, with twenty-first century technology,
a limited exhibition of animals can be taken over large distances, achieve
educational objectives, and supply entertainment without causing any obvious
discomfort to the exhibits.
Chris M. Moiser
Sado Crested Ibis Conservation Centre,
Japan
Kin, the last crested ibis (Nipponia
nippon) survivor from the wild indigenous Japanese population of this
critically endangered species, died at the Centre on 10 October 2003. She was
about one year old when caught in 1968 and spent the rest of her life in
captivity. Although protected in Japan since 1934, numbers of the species
plummeted throughout its range during the 20th century, due to a combination of
habitat deterioration (mainly heavy use of agricultural chemicals) and
overhunting. Today, the only remaining wild population is in Shaanxi Province,
China, where numbers continue to increase slowly from an all-time low of seven
birds discovered in 1981, to 66 birds by 1998.
World Birdwatch (BirdLife International) Vol. 25,
No. 4 (December 2003)
San Diego Zoo, California, U.S.A.
Following a natural mating with new
male Gao Gao, giant panda Bai Yun delivered a healthy male infant on 19 August
2003. This pregnancy promised to be different from the one in 1999, however,
when ultrasound images confirmed the presence of twin fetuses. The possibility
of twins would present a new challenge for management and, as events were soon
to reveal, alter the scientific team's perspective on panda reproductive
biology.
The new cub, being only the second
born in the U.S.A. to survive beyond a few days, gave us the opportunity to
further document the interaction between panda dams and their offspring,
including comparisons with the fascinating details obtained from Hua Mei's birth
in August 1999. Because it is not our policy to intervene in a normal mothering
process, we lack a birth weight. But, once again, `it' appeared to be about
average for a term fetus, with 112 g as the presumed birth weight. Although
giant pandas are considered to have a slow rate of development in biological
terms, the postpartum growth spurt is so remarkable that observers swore they
could see 24-hour changes. As of this writing (at 12 weeks), our cub weighs in
at 4.7 kg. This is a faster growth rate than for Hua Mei, but not by much.
On the third day (we count the day
of birth as Day 0), Bai Yun left the birth den for the first time, to obtain
water; this compares to Day 5 for Hua Mei. Her first meal was on Day 5, four
days earlier than in 1999. In general, we can summarize Bai Yun's pattern of
den leavings as starting a bit earlier than with Hua Mei, and also occurring at
a higher frequency but for shorter periods of time. We do not know if the
contrast is because of the different sex of the infant or because Bai Yun is
now an experienced mother.
Not surprisingly, there are
differences in the behavior of the two cubs. For example, this cub has proven
to be more vocal, giving voice at a rate about twice that of Hua Mei at an
equivalent age and suggesting a greater need for maternal attention. Even so,
Bai Yun has adjusted her response rate to about 60 percent for both cubs. On
the other hand, if the new cub is responding to the higher frequency of den
departures, then the difference is in Bai Yun's mothering this time around. She
has left the cub on the den floor much more frequently, adding to the
perception that in some ways she is more relaxed, perhaps even less attentive.
The new cub seems a bit more precocial in activities, such as rising up on his
forelimbs and rolling over – possibly a sex difference or just inter-individual
variation from one cub to the next. Having only two cubs for comparison simply
indicates the need for a much larger sample before we can speak definitively of
differences arising from maternal experience or from the sex of the infant.
To return to the twin issue, there
are two interesting and rather unusual facts about giant pandas that underscore
the problem to be met when twins are born. The first is that twin litters are
fairly common, having occurred in about 48 percent of about 150 captive births
so far. The second is that only one twin is nurtured by the mother. All who
have observed panda mothers are struck by their rather `uncarnivorelike'
behavior in positioning their cubs on the ventrum (chest) virtually
continuously for the first two weeks of life. This demanding form of mothering
is undoubtedly required because panda cubs are so small at birth (another
fascinating story), but in any event, only one twin is suckled. So, why have
twins if one is destined to die shortly after birth? The best answer so far is
because giant pandas are bears, and in bears litter size is typically two or
more cubs.
These facts, coupled with the
ultrasound proof of a twin that failed to be born, leads us to re-evaluate and
indeed to hypothesize on what might be happening here. Suppose, because they
are bears, pregnancies may start out with two or more potential fetuses, but
the heavy burden of mothering requires that at some point she reduce the litter
to one. Not being a rigidly determined process, litter reduction in some cases
occurs before the end of pregnancy, but in all others it occurs immediately
after delivery of a second cub. This hypothesis can only be confirmed (or
rejected) as ultrasound imagery is more widely applied as a tool in monitoring
panda pregnancies. A next step for our team will be to spread the use of this
remarkable technology to other zoos around the world and to the very robust
breeding program at the Wolong Center in China.
Donald G. Lindburg and Megan Owen in
CRES Report (Winter 2003)
[As reported in Animals and Zoos
55 (11), p. 28, twin (2.0) giant pandas born at Adventure World, Shirahama,
Japan, on 8 September 2003, are both being reared by the mother. – Ed.]
Tama Zoo, Tokyo, Japan
A baby African elephant was born at
the zoo in April 1998, and another in June 2002. The father, Tamao, was
estimated to be 36 years old, and the mother, Ai, 21 years. At her second
birth, Ai was very calm, and took good care of her baby. The female calf was
given the name Mao, and was kept outdoors in the daytime after her second week.
She has been living with her mother and another female called Cheeky since the
age of five months. Cheeky has never had a baby of her own, but she looks after
Mao very well, and this gives Ai a little breathing time. At the end of her
first year Mao weighed 513 kg, a bit more than her older brother, who weighed
482 kg at one year. For about six months after Mao reached the age of one
month, the keepers played with her in a space that Ai could not enter,
wrestling with her and riding on her back, so that she would get used to
people. The keepers started giving her obedience training at ten months, and
she has learned the commands `go', `stop', `stay' and `back'.
English summary of article in
Japanese by Risa Nakao, published in Animals and Zoos Vol. 55, No. 1
(November 2003)
Toronto Zoo, Canada
On 27 August 2003, a 47-cm-long
Komodo dragon baby hatched after 240 days in an incubator in the zoo's Animal
Health Centre. While a total of 95 Komodo dragons representing seven zoos have
been successfully hatched in the United States, this is Canada's first. Since
neither the 14-year-old dam nor the 16-year-old sire – on breeding loan from
Minnesota Zoo – were genetically represented in the captive population, this
particular pairing was considered to be the highest ranked for the species in
North America. A third dragon at the zoo, 17-year-old Loca, has also produced
eggs that are expected to hatch in a few weeks.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), December 2003
Zürich Zoo, Switzerland
Between November 2002 and the
opening in June 2003, over 17,000 plants of several hundred species – including
trees, palms, bushes, ferns, lianas, aquatic plants and orchids – were planted
in the zoo's new Masoala Rain Forest building. From tree nurseries in
Madagascar, Florida, Thailand and Malaysia they went by ship container to
Holland and Belgium and, after an acclimatisation period of six to twelve
months and regular checks on their growth and pests, were delivered to Zürich,
where they were finally planted. So that an ecosystem which is as authentic as
possible can develop, these first plants will be gradually removed and replaced
by plants from the zoo's own nursery in Masoala in Madagascar. An eco-system is
being built up which will largely regulate itself. Because animals move around
freely in the building, no conventional sprays for protecting plants can be
used; instead, ladybirds, wasps and ticks will keep harmful invertebrates under
control. Dead plants will lie and decay where they fall.
In the last few months the original
plants have developed better than expected. With the help of careful pruning,
the zoo is attempting to achieve a balance in the exhibit that largely
corresponds with the range of species on the Masoala peninsula itself. Because
there is still a lot of light reaching the ground in the young rain forest,
creepers have grown particularly fast. With as little interference as possible,
staff are ensuring that they do not choke everything else and that the young
plants can grow freely. However, it is not only at ground level that plants are
developing so well; some, such as bamboo, are reaching for the sky and have to
be cut back to stop them damaging the roof of the 30-metre-high building.
Numerous plants have flowered, including the typical white Madagascan orchids
and the travellers' palm (Ravenala madagascariensis), the national tree
of Madagascar. In the section where vegetables and fruit are grown, the papayas
and pepper are fruiting. The first ripe bananas have already been discovered
and consumed by the fruit bats.
At present, 45 species of
vertebrates (more than 300 animals in all) can be observed in the exhibit.
Almost all are zoo-bred, including the red ruffed lemurs which we have been
keeping and breeding successfully for 15 years. Initially the lemurs needed to
become accustomed to having their freedom, but now they are starting to explore
their new environment. While the older animals are still reluctant to leave the
vicinity of the familiarisation enclosures, the young lemurs born last spring
are already venturing on long journeys of exploration throughout the whole
building.
A great attraction for visitors are
the Rodrigues fruit bats who are around all day and easy to see climbing or
hanging in the trees. They love eating and so are the greatest `users' of the
forest – they soon found out which plants they like best! The first birds have
raised families. A pair of Madagascan partridges are currently to be seen
walking through the forest with their four babies in tow. The numerous
offspring of the white-faced ducks (three pairs with more than 20 young) and
Bernier's teals (two pairs, eight young, breeding place unknown) are already as
large as their parents and are now being sent to other zoos. Day geckos and
giant tortoises have been seen mating but no young have been discovered yet.
The fruit bats will not breed, since they are all female – because of high
reproduction rates in zoos, the population in Zürich is only a reserve for the
EEP.
Everyone was surprised to find out
how well and fast chameleons can swim – they were released on the island in
front of the restaurant so that they could be observed better, but amazingly
they departed across the water some days later. A number of additional species
have been integrated since the exhibit opened. These include African jacanas,
African pygmy geese, Madagascan day geckos and tomato frogs. All the animals
are identified, the small ones with chips and the birds with rings. The day
geckos are registered with a photograph of their markings, unique to each
animal.
The Masoala Rain Forest exhibit is
the largest building of its kind in Europe, measuring 90 m by 120 m, with a
ground area of 11,000 m2 and a volume of 200,000 m3. The
construction of such a building only became possible less than two decades ago,
with the invention of a highly durable but 95% translucent and extremely light
plastic membrane, ETFE (ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene). The spaces between the
box steel girders of the roof are filled with four-layer cushions of ETFE to
achieve the high insulation value needed for the survival of the sensitive rain
forest plants. In order for the plants to succeed, the building must show similar
climatic conditions to those in Masoala itself – air temperatures of 20°–30°C,
humidity values of over 80% and a rainfall of 6 mm per day. The building is
heated by a circulating air system. If necessary, heat is taken from the zoo's
central, carbon dioxide-neutral woodchip system; but in order to minimize the
requirement for energy from wood, a heat recovery system is used. In sunshine
the building warms up very quickly. If the air temperature rises above a limit
value, the hot air is sucked out, cooled and conveyed back into the building.
The excess heat is stored in a 250-m3 tank, from which it can be
recovered in the evening. In this way, even in winter 20–30% of heating
requirements can be covered, and in summer the energy system is fed exclusively
with excess heat from the building.
A central element of the building is
the sprinkling system. In order not to have to take the enormous quantity of
water out of the public water main and decalcify it, the rain water from the
roof of the building is collected in a cistern with a capacity of 1,000 m3.
The water is treated as far as necessary, kept in intermediate storage in
several day tanks and warmed to 20°C. In this way, every day up to
80,000 litres of water are available for sprinkling.
With the Masoala Rain Forest
building, Zürich Zoo is creating a direct link to its nature conservation
project in Madagascar. Masoala, a peninsula in the north-east of Madagascar, is
covered by the island's last large area of rain forest. It is a hotspot within
a hotspot, the place where Madagascar's biodiversity is at its greatest. Yet
ten hectares of this forest are cleared every day for the timber trade and for
agriculture. The government of Madagascar has appointed the development aid
organisation CARE International to plan and implement an integrated development
and nature conservation project for the area. The aim of this project, begun in
1993, is the preservation of the biologically most important part of the
Masoala peninsula as a national park. This will be surrounded by a buffer zone,
to protect the forest but allow local people to make permanent use of it. In
addition to this, projects will be set up which provide new sources of income
to the residents of the surrounding villages. This will make deforestation
unnecessary and give the rain forest a new value.
For the compilation of the
biological data CARE involved further organisations. The Wildlife Conservation
Society (WCS), based at the Bronx Zoo in New York, made an inventory of the
animals, with the exception of the birds, which were listed by the Peregrine
Fund. The plants were inventoried by the Missouri Botanical Garden. Based on
the joint suggestions as to the most important habitats, the boundaries of the
National Park and the buffer zones were drawn. Since the year 2000 the National
Park has been run jointly by the Madagascan nature conservation authority ANGAP
(Association National de la Gestion des Aires Protégées) and the WCS.
The contribution of Zürich Zoo to
conservation in Masoala is part of a contract with the Madagascan authorities.
For the planting of the zoo's Rain Forest building, we needed 2,300 seedlings
from plant nurseries in Madagascar. The authorities consented to the export of
these native plants, and in return the zoo is financing specific targeted
projects in the National Park for ten years, which will allow the population to
cultivate their land permanently and protect the rain forest. In the building,
zoo visitors can explore an almost authentic section of the Masoala rain forest,
and the adjoining information centre is intended to motivate the public to
contribute to the area's long-term upkeep. During the first 100 days after
opening, more than 400,000 visitors came to the exhibit and donated over 40,000
Swiss francs to the Masoala National Park.
Abridged and adapted from Zürich Zoo
media releases
[A 142-page, lavishly illustrated
hardback book, Masoala – the Eye of the Forest, describing both the
Madagascan and Swiss aspects of this project, has been published in German, English
and French editions. The German edition is available from Zürich Zoo (e-mail zoo@zoo.ch ) and the English and French
editions from Natural History Book Services (www.nhbs.com
).]
News in brief
The news that a recreation park in
Indonesia was exhibiting a 15-metre reticulated python was greeted with
justifiable scepticism in zoological circles. Sure enough, a few days later the
snake's true length was proved to be around 6.5 metres – big, but no
record-breaker. According to the Guinness Book of Records, the longest
discovered snake was also a reticulated python found in Sulawesi in 1912; it
was ten metres long. The longest snake in a zoo was probably the Bronx's
Samantha, a 7.5-metre python from Borneo, who died in 2002.
* *
* * *
In November 2003, the Steinhart
Aquarium, San Francisco, California, celebrated the 65th anniversary of the
arrival of Methuselah, an Australian lungfish. He has lived at the aquarium
since 1938, when he arrived as a full-grown adult; his tank-mate Herb has been
with him since 1952. But the aquarium's claim that Methuselah was the oldest
captive fish in the U.S.A. prompted a quick response from the Shedd Aquarium in
Chicago – they have a lungfish who arrived as an adult in 1933.
* *
* * *
Following on from the previous item,
another incorrect claim to a longevity record has been made by Fukuoka Zoo,
Japan, for their male Malayan tapir, `still hale and hearty at 33'. According
to Richard Weigl of Frankfurt Zoo, who is compiling a comprehensive work on
mammalian longevities, the world record for this species is held by an animal
who died at Wilhelma Zoo, Stuttgart, in 2002, aged 36 years and 6 months. A
35-year-old Malayan tapir is still living at Milwaukee County Zoo, Wisconsin.
* *
* * *
A male okapi, Jamar, was born at
Marwell Zoo, U.K., on 29 December 2003. His father is three-year-old Isiro, who
came from Rotterdam Zoo; his five-year-old mother, Zukisa, was born at Marwell.
Although Zukisa was hand-reared, she is feeding the baby herself. Another hand-reared
okapi from Marwell, Elila, earlier went to London Zoo, where she has had two
calves which she has also reared herself.
* *
* * *
Triplet red panda cubs, all females,
made their public debut at Rosamond Gifford Zoo (formerly Burnet Park Zoo),
Syracuse, New York, on 10 October 2003. Such births are very rare in this
species, and Knoxville Zoo, Tennessee, is the only other U.S. zoo that has
successfully raised red panda triplets.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), December 2003
* *
* * *
A superb lyrebird (Menura
novaehollandiae) chick hatched at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria,
Australia, on 24 September 2003, and left the nest on 9 November. This is only
the sixth lyrebird bred in captivity in almost 40 years, and is the offspring
of first-time parents; the others were all from one pair, also at Healesville,
who have since died. The chicks remain delicate until they are about a year
old, so staff will not know the sex of the bird until it is about 12 months old
and its feather colours reveal its gender; surgical sexing would be too risky.
* *
* * *
Decades of priceless zoological
research were destroyed last November when offices at Crocodylus Park, Northern
Territory, Australia, burnt down. Most of the documents and computer files were
the only copies in existence. Research at the park dates back to 1973, and
includes work on crocodiles, sea turtles and sea birds in Australia and
overseas.
* *
* * *
Tama Zoo, Tokyo, Japan, has a plan
to recycle the 1,000 tons of dung its animals produce annually in the form of
biomass energy to cut disposal costs and save on the use of fossil fuels. The
metropolitan government and a private company will research how to use the
waste, then start producing biogas in an experimental processing plant in 2005.
The technology for producing methane from organic waste has reached the
practical stage, though one problem is what to do with the liquid left over; in
the zoo's case, farms have already been contracted to use it as fertilizer.
* *
* * *
Allan Paul of the Highland Wildlife
Park and Andrew Kitchener of the National Museums of Scotland are collaborating
to prepare a new U.K. studbook for the Scottish wildcat. Hybridisation with
domestic cats is a major threat in the wild, and it may be that the only way of
safeguarding the Scottish form is through captive breeding. At present, most
collections have little idea how pure their wildcats are; so the plan is to
include some form of hybridisation index for individual cats in the studbook,
as an aid to determining the best animals to breed from. The cats will be
graded mainly through the analysis of photographic images.
Abridged from Allan Paul in Arkfile
(Royal Zoological Society of Scotland) Vol. 14 (Winter 2003)
* *
* * *
Twin Caribbean manatees were born in
November at Beauval Zoo, Saint-Aignan, France. The director, Rodolphe Delord,
says this is thought to be the first twin manatee birth in any zoo. The 1.1
babies each weighed about 20 kg and were around a metre long. The zoo already
has experience of rearing this species, as a previous baby was born there in
2001.
* *
* * *
Japan's first dolphin birth by
artificial insemination took place at Kamogawa Sea World on 16 July 2003, following
a 20-year study. The female bottle-nosed dolphin calf is the tenth offspring of
the mother, Slim, who is estimated to be 37 years old. Three females were
inseminated, two became pregnant, but only Slim went to full term.
Translated by Ken Kawata from Animals
and Zoos 55 (10), p. 16
* *
* * *
Two geladas were born at Colchester
Zoo, U.K., in November and December 2003. The babies, the first ever to be bred
in Britain, bring numbers in the zoo's group to nine. In September three males
from Colchester went to form a bachelor group at Edinburgh Zoo.
* * *
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unicornis) und Breitmaulnashorn (Ceratotherium simum) – Bilder aus
dem Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde. Zweiter Nachtrag. (Indian and white rhinos
– pictures from Tierpark Berlin. Second Supplement.) Milu Vol. 11, No. 2
(2003), pp. 97–102. [German, no English summary.]
Brandwood, D.: Where have all the
Jardines gone? Parrot Society Magazine Vol. 38, No. 1 (2004), pp. 3–11.
[Jardine's parrot (Poicephalus gulielmi).]
Burns, C.E., Ciofi, C., Beheregaray,
L.B., Fritts, T.H., Gibbs, J.P., Márquez, C., Milinkovitch, M.C., Powell, J.R.,
and Caccone, A.: The origin of captive Galápagos tortoises based on DNA
analysis: implications for the management of natural populations. Animal
Conservation Vol. 6, No. 4 (2003), pp. 329–337. [Giant tortoises once
thrived throughout the Galápagos archipelago, but today three island
populations are extinct, only one individual survives from the island of Pinta,
and several populations are critically endangered. The authors established the
geographic origin of 59 captive tortoises housed at the Charles Darwin Research
Station in the Galápagos Islands in an effort to find a mate for the sole
survivor from Pinta (`Lonesome George') and to augment the number of breeders
in other imperilled populations. By comparison with an extensive database of
mtDNA control region (CR) haplotypes and nine microsatellites, they determined
the geographic and evolutionary origin of the captive individuals. All
individuals had CR haplotypes and multilocus microsatellite genotypes identical
to or closely related to known haplotypes from natural populations. No obvious
mate was found for Lonesome George, although we found several captive
individuals carrying an evolutionarily close but geographically distinct mtDNA
haplotype. Tortoises with mtDNA haplotypes closely related to another at-risk
population (San Cristóbal) were also identified. These individuals could be
considered as candidates for augmentation of natural populations or
captive-breeding programmes, and exemplify how molecular techniques can provide
insights for the development of endangered species management plans.]
Chester, M.: Keeping little owls. Tyto
Vol. 8, No. 1 (2003), pp. 17–21. [Athene noctua.]
Clarke, G., and Ashby, H.: An
investigation into the activity budget of a female red squirrel (Sciurus
vulgaris) before and after enclosure modification, with special reference
to stereotypic behaviour. Ratel Vol. 30, No. 6 (2003), pp. 174–181.
[Tilgate Nature Centre, West Sussex, U.K. The authors suggest that aviaries
often need to be modified if used for red squirrels; in particular, wire mesh
at ground level or adjacent to horizontal platforms should be replaced by solid
cladding.]
Coers, A.: Training: the area of
opportunity. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 4 (2003), pp. 11–12.
[Auckland Zoo; California sea lion.]
Cox, A.S.: Captive breeding of the
white-bellied bustard Eupodis senegalensis at Jacksonville Zoological
Gardens. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 3 (2003), pp. 107–115.
Czekala, N.M., MacDonald, E.A.,
Steinman, K., Walker, S., Garrigues, N.W., Olson, D., and Brown, J.L.: Estrogen
and LH dynamics during the follicular phase of the estrous cycle in the Asian
elephant. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No. 5 (2003), pp. 443–454.
Dathe,
F.: Pflege und Vermehrung der Ägyptischen Landschildkröte, Testudo
kleinmanni (Lortet, 1883), im Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde. (Care and breeding of Egyptian
tortoises at Tierpark Berlin.) Milu Vol. 11, No. 2 (2003), pp. 156–169. [German,
no English summary.]
Dieckmann,
R., and Dienemann, C.: Waschbär, Halsbandsittich, Ochsenfrosch Neubürger auf dem
Vormarsch. (Raccoon,
rose-ringed parakeet, American bullfrog – new settlers on the march.) Zeitschrift
des Kölner Zoo Vol. 46, No. 4 (2003), pp. 155–165. [German, with brief
English summary. The authors
present some examples of the invasion of alien species.]
Dieckmann,
R., and Ziegler, T.: Das Rheinpanorama des Kölner Aquariums in neuen Licht: von
Rheinfischen, Naturschutz und Trinkwassergewinnung. (Cologne Zoo aquarium's Rhine panorama in a new
light: fish, conservation and drinking water.) Zeitschrift des Kölner
Zoo Vol. 46, No. 4 (2003), pp. 135–153. [German, with English summary. A new information system for the
aquarium has been planned after more than 30 years. The first stage is a new
education concept and display design for the river Rhine panorama. With 18
portholes and two conventional aquaria, the Rhine panorama gives insights into
the fish diversity of the river from source to estuary. Along the course of the
panorama 17 species of fish are presented. For each species information is
provided about husbandry, ecology and conservation status. As the new
information system was developed, modifications of the zoo's Rhine fish stock
also took place. The new displays emphasize the different fish communities
along the course of the river Rhine. Water pollution control and conservation
measures play an important role in the new education system. In addition, the
conflict of interests over the Rhine's resources, above all in water
purification, are highlighted.]
Gardner, W.: Treatment of bronchitis
in a giant panda. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 10 (2003), pp.
423–424. [Zoo Atlanta, Georgia.]
Garner, R.: Annual fecundity,
gestation period and egg survivorship in the brown-banded bamboo shark, Chiloscyllium
punctatum, in captivity. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 3 (2003), pp. 4–9.
Greenwald, K.R., and Dabek, L.:
Behavioral development of a polar bear cub (Ursus maritimus) in
captivity. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No. 5 (2003), pp. 507–514. [The
difficulty of observing polar bears in the wild has prohibited the gathering of
behavioral data necessary to develop a baseline set of milestones for
monitoring cub development. This study, at Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence,
Rhode Island, describes and quantifies previously undocumented trends in
behavior observed in a captive cub – information that will be useful both in
future comparative studies and in the implementation of husbandry improvements.
Nearly 400 hours of behavioral data were collected, 100 hours of which were
video recordings from the maternity den during the first three months of life.
Den videos were scored to determine activity budgets and levels of maternal
contact. For the remainder of the first year, mother and cub were observed in
the outdoor enclosure. The onset and relative frequency of 40 discrete cub
behaviors were tracked, as were patterns of mother–cub contact, including
nursing and weaning. This study revealed that environmental conditions, habitat
enrichment, and conditioning procedures influenced the patterns of
developmental behavior exhibited by a polar bear cub. Both climatic and
developmental factors had significant effects on the time the bears spent
swimming. Management practices, such as environmental enrichment, and a
conditioning procedure involving separation of mother and cub caused transient
changes in several tracked behaviors. As the cub aged, the longest time between
consecutive maternal contacts increased. Nursing bouts recorded per hour of
observation decreased, and the duration of individual nursing bouts and
pre-nurse begging periods increased.]
Guerrero, D.: Individuality and
potential. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 10 (2003), pp. 406–407.
[Learning rates in animal training.]
Guerrero, S.: The Dominican Republic
Owl Conservation Project: a second generation of ashy-faced barn owls and the
first breeding of the Hispaniola burrowing owl. Tyto Vol. 8, No. 1
(2003), pp. 34–38. [Tyto glaucops and Athene cunicularia troglodytes.]
Hall, E.: Rehabilitation and release
techniques for wildlife. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 4 (2003), pp. 14–23.
[Describes work at Taronga Zoo with a variety of mammal and bird species.]
Honan, P.: Spiders in Space wraps
up. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 3 (2003), pp. 14–16. [Eriophora
transmarinus spiders from Melbourne Zoo appeared to build functional webs
in zero gravity on a space shuttle.]
Jacobsen, T.B., Mayntz, M., and
Amundin, M.: Splitting suckling data of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops
truncatus) neonates in human care into suckling bouts. Zoo
Biology Vol. 22, No. 5 (2003), pp. 477–488.
Jauch,
D., and Koch, I.: Das neue Insektarium in der Wilhelma, Stuttgart. (Wilhelma Zoo's new insect house.) Der
Zoologische Garten Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 266–283. [German, with brief
English summary. The new house, opened in March 2002, is divided into three
parts. The first is dedicated to the biodiversity of insects and their
relatives, the second is the butterfly hall, with information on the
development of insects, and the third deals with people's love of `useful'
insects and hatred of pests. A short glimpse of the history of displaying
insects and spiders to the public in zoos worldwide and in Stuttgart is
included.]
Jensen, T., Pernasetti, F.M., and
Durrant, B.: conditions for rapid sex determination in 47 avian species by PCR
of genomic DNA from blood, shell-membrane blood vessels, and feathers. Zoo
Biology Vol. 22, No. 6 (2003), pp. 561–571.
Jones, M.L.: A history of the genus Pithacartes
in captivity, 1948–2002. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 3
(2003), pp. 125–129.
Kaiser,
M.: Erfolgreiche Handaufzucht einer Sonnenralle (Eurypyga helias) im
Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde. (Successful hand-rearing of a sunbittern at Tierpark Berlin.) Milu
Vol. 11, No. 2 (2003), pp. 143–155. [German, no English summary.]
Kormann,
J.: Zur Bekämpfung von Hakensaugwürmern (Monogenea, Pectobothrii) auf der Haut
von Meeresfischen mittels Süsswasser-Kurzbad. (Control of parasitic flatworms on the skin of
marine fishes by use of a freshwater tank.) Milu Vol. 11, No. 2 (2003),
pp. 170–172. [German, no English summary.]
Kuhar, C.W., Bettinger, T.L.,
Sironen, A.L., Shaw, J.H., and Lasley, B.L.: Factors affecting reproduction in
zoo-housed Geoffroy's tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi). Zoo Biology
Vol. 22, No. 6 (2003), pp. 545–559. [The captive population of Geoffroy's
tamarin has suffered a severe decline over the past ten years. This decline is
attributed not to a failure to produce offspring, but rather to a failure to
successfully rear them. To date, no studies have quantitatively examined the
behaviors and hormones of this species in captivity. This study was conducted
to determine whether there were any discernible factors that could be
correlated with failure to rear offspring. Fifteen adult Geoffroy's tamarins at
Cleveland Metroparks Zoo were observed by means of instantaneous sampling on a
focal animal. In addition, all instances of social behaviors were recorded. A
factorial arrangement of treatments was used, as animals were divided between a
colony-housing situation (in which they could see, hear, and smell other
groups) and a non-colony situation (where they could not see, hear, and smell
other groups), with hand-reared and mother-reared animals in both treatments.
Repeated-measures analysis of variance showed no interactions between the
treatments, and no significant differences in behavior were found between
mother-reared and hand-reared adults. However, animals housed in sensory
contact with other groups were less active and exhibited more aggressive
behaviors compared to animals that were not. They also tended to engage in more
sexual behaviors, and scent-mark and huddle more often. First-morning-void
urine samples were collected once a week, and assays indicated that the females
were not undergoing suppressed reproduction; all the females exhibited
significant circulating levels of E1C and PdG, and were pregnant at
some time during the study. Samples assayed for excreted cortisol showed no
differences in mean cortisol concentration by rearing histories or housing
conditions, but there was a trend for successful mothers to show higher levels
of cortisol than unsuccessful mothers. While these physiological indicators
reveal no signs of stress, high levels of aggressive and territorial behaviors
indicate social unrest in the colony-housed condition, which may be
contributing to the poor reproductive success of those individuals.]
Leimgruber, P., Gagnon, J.B.,
Wemmer, C., Kelly, D.S., Songer, M.A., and Selig, E.R.: Fragmentation of Asia's
remaining wildlands: implications for Asian elephant conservation. Animal
Conservation Vol. 6, No. 4 (2003), pp. 347–359. [Habitat loss and
fragmentation are main causes for Asian elephant population declines. The
authors mapped wildlands – large, unfragmented and undeveloped areas – asking:
(1) Where are the largest wildlands that constitute elephant habitats? (2) What
proportion of these wildlands is protected? (3) What is their potential for
elephant conservation? Their study demonstrates that wildlands constitute only
51% of the Asian elephant range. Burma has the largest wildland (c.
170,000 km2), followed by Thailand and India. Ranges were allocated
to fragmentation clusters of three types. Cluster A contains large ranges with
unfragmented wildlands; cluster B includes ranges with well-developed
transportation networks and large human populations; and cluster C contains
ranges with severely fragmented wildlands. In cluster A, four ranges (two in
Burma, one in India and one spanning the Thai–Burma border) were identified
with elephant populations greater than 1,000 animals: together with ranges that
support over 1,000 elephants in cluster B, these A ranges have great potential
for long-term elephant conservation. The authors propose that fragmentation
clusters and population size can be used to identify different elephant
monitoring and management zones.]
Lewis, C.: Your imagination is your
limitation. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 4 (2003), pp. 12–13. [Auckland Zoo;
training Galápagos tortoise and chacma baboon.]
Lücker,
H.: Haltung von schwach-elektrischen Fischen in Schauaquarien – eine
`spannungsvolle' Sache. (Husbandry
of weakly-electric fish in public aquariums – a stressful [`high-voltage']
affair.) Der Zoologische Garten Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 284–295.
[German, with English summary. Weakly-electric fish from tropical America
(Gymnotidae) and Africa (Mormyridae and Gymnarchidae) possess extremely
sensitive electroreceptors. They can locate weakly electric fields in water and
detect changes in the field caused by distortions by objects. They additionally
have weakly electric organs, which produce their own electric field by mean of
a series of single electric organ discharges (EODs). Weakly electric fish
detect species-specific signalling in the form of an EOD and in the rhythm of
the discharge. With the help of silver electrodes, an amplifier, an oscillograph
and loudspeakers plus graphic signboards, the peculiar and fantastic world of
the weakly electric fishes can be made accessible to aquarium visitors.]
McKay, S.: Examining cheetah
personalities – do they affect breeding success? Ratel Vol. 30, No. 6 (2003),
pp. 159–168.
Male, S.: Successful breeding of
rainbow bee-eater at Taronga Zoo. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 4 (2003), pp.
2–3. [Merops ornatus.]
Manna, S.: Enteritis and its
treatment in an Asian elephant. Zoos' Print Journal Vol. 18, No. 6
(2003), p. 1130.
Manning, B.: The captive management
of the black-eared miner Manorina melanotis. Thylacinus Vol. 27,
No. 3 (2003), pp. 10–13. [Healesville Sanctuary.]
Margulis, S.W., Hoyos, C., and
Anderson, M.: Effect of felid activity on zoo visitor interest. Zoo Biology
Vol. 22, No. 6 (2003), pp. 587–599. [The extent to which the presence of
visitors influences zoo animal behavior, and the ways in which animal activity
influences visitor interest and perception, are of great interest to zoos.
Visitors have been variously characterized as being enriching for zoo animals,
as being stressors, and generally as influencing behavior in measurable ways.
Most studies have focused on primates, and have assumed a `visitor effect'
paradigm (i.e. visitors influence animal behavior). The authors present
findings from a study of six felid species at Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, and
examine the `visitor attraction' model, which assumes that visitors are
attracted to active animals. The results indicate that visitor presence per
se did not influence cat activity, and that visitor interest was generally
greater when cats were active. Various species differences may be explained by
visitor familiarity with the species, variations in exhibit design, and
species-specific activity budgets. The authors conclude that the visitor
attraction model may be more appropriate for taxa, such as large cats, that
tend naturally to be largely inactive and to respond little (if at all) to
visitor disturbances or efforts to engage. The relationship must be viewed as
bidirectional: visitors influence animal behavior, and animal behavior
influences visitor interest. However, the strength and primary direction of
this relationship is likely to be taxon-specific. They suggest that a visitor
attraction model may be more appropriate not only for felids, but for other
taxa with similar behavioral patterns and responses as well.]
Matschei,
C.: Haltungs- und Zuchtergebnisse von Schneeziegen, Oreamnos americanus,
in Tiergärten. (Husbandry and
breeding of Rocky Mountain goat in zoos.) Milu Vol. 11, No. 2 (2003),
pp. 130–142. [German, with very brief English summary. All German, Austrian and
Swiss zoos which have held the species are included. The founder population of
the 1980s and 1990s consisted of 19 (9.10) goats; 34 (16.18) animals were alive
in October 2003 (26 in Germany, 7 in Austria and 1 in Switzerland).]
Nadler,
T.: Verbreitung und Bestand des Weisskopflangur (Trachypithecus
poliocephalus leucocephalus). (Distribution and status of the white-headed langur.) Der Zoologische
Garten Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 324–335. [German, with English summary.
Endemic to the southern Chinese province of Guangxi, the white-headed langur is
one of the world's 25 most endangered primate taxa. The systematic position of
this species has been debated for a long time. New DNA evidence shows a close
relationship on the subspecies level to the Vietnamese Cat Ba or golden-headed
langur, contrary to the often-supposed relationship to the François's langur.
The current population of white-headed langurs is estimated to be only 700 to
800 individuals in four isolated sub-populations. Historically, hunting for use
in traditional Chinese medicine was the greatest threat to the langurs,
dramatically decreasing the population and eradicating some sub-populations.
Currently, the greatest threat is fragmentation and destruction of habitat by
conversion into agricultural land. The refuges of the last populations have
been declared as protected areas, but the local communes retain the right to
use the land. In Chongzuo County, Guangxi province, a protected area has been
established as an `Ecopark' at considerable expense. The area should serve as
an example for the conservation of highly endangered species, offering
possibilities for both scientific research and tourism. Extensive education and
support for the surrounding communes, e.g. with the introduction and
installation of biogas systems, has reduced pressure on the nature reserve.]
Nederlof,
L.-J.: Onverwachte kweek azuurvlinders. (Unexpected breeding of a blue Morpho butterfly.) De Harpij
Vol. 22, No. 3 (2003), pp. 12–15. [Dutch, with English summary. Approximately
70 species of Morpho butterflies are found throughout Central and South
America. The subspecies Morpho peleides limpida, the only subspecies of M.
peleides with white `pupils' on the eyespots on the underside of the wings,
is found in the lowlands of Costa Rica, where it feeds on fungi and the sap of
rotting fruit. The beautiful iridescent blue on the upper surface of the wings
and the impressive 10-cm wing span make this butterfly particularly popular in
butterfly gardens, including the one at Rotterdam Zoo. Nonetheless it is not
often bred, primarily because of the difficulties in acquiring and maintaining
suitable plants for the caterpillars to feed on. In hopes of successfully
breeding this butterfly, Rotterdam's botanical staff acquired and propagated
different plants that had been mentioned in the literature as proven species
for reproducing these butterflies. None of these was successful, and the search
for an appropriate plant continued. It appeared that a suitable plant, the
coral tree (Erythrina caffra), was already present, as six M. p.
limpida caterpillars in the fifth instar were discovered consuming its
leaves in October 2002! This insect spends seven days in the egg, 53 days as
the caterpillar instars and 14 days as a pupa before emerging for five to ten
weeks of life as a glorious butterfly. The first home-grown adults were flying
around the zoo's butterfly garden in December. While the preferred E. caffra
tree had been placed in the garden in hopes that it would be used by the
butterflies, there had been no documentation of this in the literature. This
underscores the following: it is important to remain up to date on the latest
literature regarding butterfly culture, to have a botanical collection that is
large enough to allow some experimentation with plants, and to ensure that
information regarding potential food plants is shared throughout the zoo.]
Ngugi, L.N.: A bizarre monkey born. Animal
Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 10 (2003), p. 410. [A monkey born at Mount
Kenya Animal Orphanage is apparently the hybrid offspring of an olive baboon (Papio
anubis) mother and a golden-bellied crested mangabey (Cercocebus
galeritus chrysogaster) father.]
Nyhus, P.J., Tilson, R.L., and
Tomlinson, J.L.: Dangerous animals in captivity: ex situ tiger conflict
and implications for private ownership of exotic animals. Zoo Biology
Vol. 22, No. 6 (2003), pp. 573–586. [There may currently be more tigers in
captivity than in the wild. In addition to the population in professionally
managed zoos, an unknown number are kept as exotic pets by individuals, and in
non-accredited zoos, circuses, and safari parks. The population of tigers held
in such conditions may actually exceed the number in the wild and in
populations actively managed by the world zoo community combined. In the
U.S.A., unsubstantiated reports suggest that from 7,000 to 10,000 tigers may be
in private hands; but the number could be as high as 12,000, given the large
number of animals that are kept illegally or are not recorded. Most of these
tigers are of mixed origin and unknown lineage, and thus contribute little if
anything to existing conservation programs. Relatively little is known about
the risks of injury or death associated with owning and managing captive tigers
and other large carnivores. The purpose of this study was to conduct a global
assessment of attacks by captive tigers on people, with particular emphasis on
cases in the U.S.A. Analysis of 30 international media sources and additional
documents uncovered 59 incidents in 1998–2001 in which people were reportedly
injured or killed by captive tigers. In the U.S., seven people were reportedly
killed and at least 27 injured – a rate of 1.75 fatal attacks and at least nine
non-fatal attacks per year. All but one fatal attack in the U.S. occurred in
situations where tigers were privately owned or held in private facilities.
Forty-two percent of the victims were classified as visitors, and almost
one-quarter were under the age of 20. These results suggest that the victims
underestimated the dangers posed by direct contact with these animals. The
authors review current legislation regarding captive ownership of tigers and
other large exotic animals, and contradict claims by those who support private
ownership of tigers and other large felids that the risks associated with
owning and viewing these animals are insignificant. They conclude that the
growing number of people who own tigers and other large exotic animals is cause
for concern because of the danger to the animals, the handlers, and the public.
The problem of private ownership of dangerous exotic animals has broad
implications for tiger and large-carnivore conservation, public health, and
animal welfare. The authors support the regulation of private ownership of
dangerous exotic animals, and encourage scientific analysis of this contentious
issue.]
Olson, M.A., Huang, Y., Li, D.,
Spindler, R., Howard, J., Zhang, H., and Durrant, B.: Assessment of motility,
acrosomal integrity, and viability of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
sperm following short-term storage at 4°C. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No. 6
(2003), pp. 529–544.
Owen, A.: The capture of eight
Montserrat orioles and their subsequent establishment and breeding at Jersey
Zoo. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 3 (2003), pp. 116–124. [Icterus
oberi.]
Pfeiffer, J.S.: Notes on poison dart
frog breeding at the Little Rock Zoo. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No.
10 (2003), pp. 415–418.
Phillips, B.T., and Jackson, S.M.:
Growth and development of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) at
Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, Australia. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No. 5
(2003), pp. 497–505. [In a litter of 0.4 young, measurements of crown–rump
length, head length, and head width were recorded every week from birth. Body
weight was recorded weekly once the joeys were detached from the teat at 142
days of age, until 218 days of age. The growth curves revealed an initial
linear increase in crown–rump lengths until approximately 60 days of age, when
the gradient increased, while head length and head width showed a largely
linear increase with age. The appearances of various morphological
characteristics were also recorded.]
Pohle, C.: Gayale seit 40 Jahren im
Tierpark Berlin. (40 years of gayals at Tierpark Berlin.) Milu Vol. 11,
No. 2 (2003), pp. 121–129. [German, no English summary; Bos frontalis.]
Poley,
D.: Bemerkungen zur Sprache der Tiergärtnerei. (Notes on the language of zoos.) Der
Zoologische Garten Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 252–265. [German, with very
brief English summary. The author reviews some German words which are used in
the context of zoos, biological sciences, nature and species conservation and
legislation. The different meanings of the German words for, e.g., captivity
and imprisonment, extinction and endangered species are discussed. ]
Poorterman, A.: Het Grote Roofdieren
Project in Oeganda. (The Large Carnivore Project in Uganda.) De Harpij
Vol. 22, No. 3 (2003), pp. 20–22. [Dutch, with English summary. The project is
an initiative of Wildlife and Animal Resources Management (WARM), a department
of Makarere University in Kampala, undertaken in cooperation with the Uganda
Wildlife Authority (UWA). Currently research on viruses is being carried out
and large carnivores are being censused in three national parks. The research
team consists of four people: a leader (also zoologist), two veterinarians and
a field assistant. The team has the expertise, but not the funds, to carry out
the research, so Amersfoort Zoo is committed to raising Euros 75,000 to support
the project each year for the next three years. The first fund- raising event
took place on 29 June 2002, when the zoo held an `Africa at the Zoo' event. The
research team came from Uganda to tell about their work, and in the evening a
host of activities, including dancing, workshops and a concert were held.
African items were sold at market stalls. The research team not only received a
check for 75,000, but was also the first recipient of the zoo's annual nature
conservation trophy, which includes a gift of Euros 70,000.]
Rajendran, S., Saseendran, P.C., and
Chitra, R.: Ethology of teasing by visitors in the Zoological Gardens,
Thrissur. Zoos' Print Vol. 18, No. 6 (2003), pp. 15–16. [`It was
concluded that predominant teasers were adults, males and educated' (!).]
Rajendran, S., Saseendran, P.C., and
Chitra, R.: Visitors' behaviour at primate cages in the Zoological Gardens,
Thrissur. Zoos' Print Vol. 18, No. 6 (2003), p. 14. [`Most of the
teasers when asked not to tease accepted it and moved away.']
Raphael, B.L., Kalk, P., Thomas, P.,
Calle, P.P., Doherty, J.G., and Cook, R.A.: Use of melengestrol acetate in feed
for contraception in herds of captive ungulates. Zoo Biology Vol. 22,
No. 5 (2003), pp. 455–463. [Herds of blackbuck antelope and barasingha, axis,
sambar and Formosan sika deer at the Bronx Zoo were fed melengestrol acetate
(MGA) at a concentration of 0.000154% in pelleted feed for various periods
during 1991–2001. The target dose per animal was 1–2 mg per day. Contraceptive
rates during treatment were 100% for blackbuck, barasingha, sambar, and sika,
and approximately 93% for axis. There were no observed adverse effects from MGA
treatment on gestation. Post-treatment reproductive rates were lower than
pre-treatment rates.]
Rudloff,
K.: Hausschweine im Tierpark Berlin. (Domestic pigs in Tierpark Berlin.) Milu Vol. 11, No. 2 (2003),
pp. 109–120. [German, no English summary.]
Scheib,
M.-H., and Schratter, D.: Die Wüste lebt! Vom historischen
Pflanzenüberwinterungshaus zum ersten Wüstenhaus in Wien. (The living desert! From a historic
overwintering house for plants to the first desert house in Vienna.) Der
Zoologische Garten Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 336–348. [German, with English
summary. The newly-opened desert house in Vienna is a joint venture of
Schönbrunn Zoo and the Austrian Federal Gardens. In an area of 2000 m2,
the house represents arid habitats of Africa, America, the Middle East and
Madagascar. After an extensive four-year renovation, the historic Sun Dial
House now displays 22 animal and 400 plant species. The plants belong to the
valuable succulent collection of the Austrian Federal Gardens. The
theme-specific choice of plants and animals combined with a multisensory
education section allows visitors to experience the complex ecosystem of a
desert. The experience of nature inside the house is in charming contrast with
the historic stylishness of the exterior.]
Squires, P.: Hand-rearing a central
Australian short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus). Thylacinus
Vol. 27, No. 2 (2003), pp. 2–5. [Wildcare Inc., Alice Springs; the animal was
wild-born and about 50 days old when rescued.]
Strauss,
G.: `Kumari' – Die Krankengeschichte eines Panzernashorns (Rhinoceros unicornis).
(Kumari – medical history of
an Indian rhino.) Milu Vol. 11, No. 2 (2003), pp. 103–108. [German, no
English summary.]
Swanson, W.F, Johnson, W.E., Cambre,
R.C., Citino, S.B., Quigley, K.B., Brousset, D.M., Morais, R.N., Moreira, N.,
O'Brien, S.J., and Wildt, D.E.: Reproductive status of endemic felid species in
Latin American zoos and implications for ex situ conservation. Zoo
Biology Vol. 22, No. 5 (2003), pp. 421–441. [Reproductive evaluations were
conducted on 185 male cats representing eight endemic Latin American species
that were maintained in 44 zoos and private facilities in 12 Latin American
countries. Reproductive assessments (testicular measures, ejaculate quality,
and blood testosterone/cortisol concentration) were used to establish normative
values for large- and small-sized cats in Latin American collections. Data were
also analyzed using multiple regression to study the impact of proven breeder
status, diet, and various animal housing combinations. Most felids (>95%) in
the survey were of wild-born origin, and <20% had produced offspring in
captivity. Larger felids had bigger testes and produced more semen, but tended
to produce low-sperm-density ejaculates. The ejaculates of small felids were
more sperm-concentrated, but contained fewer total spermatozoa. Sperm motility
was unrelated to species size, and certain species (puma, margay, tigrina, and
jaguarundi) consistently produced few (<40%) normal sperm forms. Across
species, >50% of males had low sperm counts (< 1 million total sperm per
ejaculate). Among large cats (jaguars and pumas), proven breeders had larger
testes, greater semen volume, and more normal sperm than non-breeders. Males on
adequate diets had higher circulating cortisol. Among small-sized felids,
proven breeders had higher testosterone, and males housed alone or paired with
a conspecific female had more total sperm per ejaculate and greater seminal and
testicular volumes. Fifty-nine ejaculates (potentially representing c.
100 artificial insemination or 26,000 in vitro fertilization procedures)
were cryopreserved for a felid genome resource bank. In conclusion, breeding
success and reproductive traits for many endemic felids in Latin American zoos
appear to be sub-optimal, and likely would benefit from improvements in diet
and exhibitry. Technology transfer and continued training of zoo staff and
scientists in Latin American countries are essential if these zoos are to
achieve their tremendous conservation potential for felids and other threatened
endemic species.]
Tarou, L.R., Bashaw, M.J., and
Maple, T.L.: Failure of a chemical spray to significantly reduce stereotypic
licking in a captive giraffe. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No. 6 (2003), pp.
601–607. [The repetitive licking of non-food substrates is a common stereotypic
behavior in captive giraffes. The authors attempted to reduce stereotypic
licking in a Masai giraffe at Zoo Atlanta, Georgia, by applying a bitter
chemical (marketed as a taste deterrent to prevent the unwanted licking and
chewing of substrates) to the areas of the fence licked most frequently by the
giraffe. However, there were no significant overall changes in stereotypic
licking following treatment with the chemical spray. Although licking of the
treated area was observed to decrease, the behavior increased in non-treated
areas. This result suggests that the underlying motivation driving the behavior
was not affected by the aversive stimulus. Because stereotypic licking in
giraffes may be based on a motivation to use their tongues in foraging, more
effective techniques for reducing stereotypic fence-licking in giraffes may
include increasing feeding duration by increasing the quantity, processing
time, or distribution range of food.]
Thévenon, S., Bonnet, A., Claro, F.,
and Maillard, J.-C.: Genetic diversity analysis of captive populations: the
Vietnamese sika deer (Cervus nippon pseudaxis) in zoological parks. Zoo
Biology Vol. 22, No. 5 (2003), pp. 465–475. [This endangered subspecies has
disappeared in the wild, but is being bred in zoos. The authors studied the
genetic diversity and population structure of herds kept in European zoos,
using nine microsatellite loci. The goal was to evaluate the consequences of
founding effects and breeding practices on the level and structure of genetic
variability. Contrary to expectation, the present level of genetic diversity in
European zoos is as large as that of the populations kept on Vietnamese farms.
This is explained by the recent introduction of deer from Cuc Phuong, and to
important differences among the populations of different zoos which increase
the total genetic variability; the rate of exchange of animals between zoos is
too low to prevent strong genetic drift which has resulted in high genetic
differentiation between zoo herds. The differentiation between the European and
Vietnamese populations is high because of founding effects, genetic drift, and
possible hybridization in both populations. Although the current level of
genetic variability is not particularly low, future levels are probably
threatened by current herd sizes and structure. The authors recommend that the
current breeding system in Europe should be modified to avoid loss of genetic
variability in the long term; herd sizes should be increased, and high and
symmetrical gene flows between the European herds should be promoted. They also
suggest that potential hybridization should be assessed by genetic studies of
various sika deer subspecies.]
Thoney, D.A., Warmolts, D.I., and
Andrews, C.: Acquisition of fishes and aquatic invertebrates for zoological
collections. Is there a future? Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No. 6 (2003), pp.
519–527. [The majority of the freshwater fishes in the ornamental trade now
originate from captive-bred sources, as do a large proportion of the freshwater
species exhibited in public aquariums. In contrast, commercial operators who
also supply marine specimens to the ornamental trade remove directly from the
wild approximately 98% of the marine fishes and invertebrates exhibited in
public aquariums. The common perception prevails that captive propagation is
inherently a better alternative to obtaining animals from the wild. Although
captive propagation has been shown to have many benefits for terrestrial
species, there are a number of features unique to marine species that challenge
the idea that every species should be bred in captivity. Some of the key issues
relating to the development of widespread conservation-oriented captive
propagation programs include: (1) the high taxonomic diversity in marine
animals; (2) the resultant variety in their reproductive methods; (3) their
ecological, behavioral, physiological, and nutritional needs; and (4) our
general lack of knowledge on their husbandry and medical care. There are
several characteristics of marine fish and invertebrate populations that make
them suitable candidates for sustainable harvest. For instance, marine teleosts
are `r-selected', meaning that they have an extremely high fecundity, and most
marine teleosts have a wide distribution and the ability to disperse over long
distances. In locations considered for fish collection, appropriate management
techniques should be employed to ensure that fishes and invertebrates are
collected with as little impact on the ecosystem as possible. The collection of
marine fishes and invertebrates for public aquariums and the hobby trade should
be managed like a fishery to ensure long-term sustainability. The public
aquarium community should support marine organism certification initiatives,
such as the Marine Aquarium Council. Marine organism certification will create
market incentives that encourage and support quality and sustainable practices
by creating consumer demand and confidence for certified organisms, practices,
and industry participants. The creation of refuges that supply propagules to
harvested areas, the rotation of areas fished, species-specific size limits and
seasons, and standardization of collecting, handling, and transportation
techniques should be used to manage these fisheries and harvest areas.]
Umrigar, K.D., and Belsare, A.V.:
Contraception in a blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) using melengesterol
acetate. Zoos' Print Journal Vol. 18, No. 6 (2003), p. 1129.
Valandikar, S.C., Murthy, S., and
Giriraj, N.: A successful caesarian section in civet (Viverricula indica)
in Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysore: a case report on dystokia. Zoos'
Print Vol. 18, No. 10 (2003), p. 7.
van der Elst, W.: Verrijking . . .
less is more. (Enrichment – less is more.) De Harpij Vol. 22, No. 3
(2003), pp. 24–27. [Dutch, with English summary. Animal enrichment should allow
the animal to carry out natural activities, and it should be cost-effective,
i.e. the amount of time that the keeper spends setting up the enrichment
opportunity should be considerably less than the amount of time for which the
animal is `enriched'. Enrichment is not just for apes and elephants, it is just
as important and useful for aquarium creatures. Fish become stressed too, and
may also show stereotyped behaviours. The author describes several examples of
enrichment activities for aquarium animals, as well as an amusing account of
the evolution of a (possibly!) perfect cricket feeder for archerfish (Toxotes
jaculator). The author suggests that even if some ideas are impractical to
carry out. musing about them may spawn other ideas that can be developed.]
van
der Heul, S.: Geluidsonderzoek bij de gewone zeehond. (Acoustic research on common seals.) De
Harpij Vol. 22, No. 4 (2003), pp. 25–27. [Dutch, with English summary. The
Dutch government is striving to make relevant information, e.g. water depth and
current speed, available to ships sailing in heavily travelled waters leading
to several harbours. The `Acoustic Communication network for Monitoring of
underwater Environment in coastal areas' (ACME) system is being tested for its
suitability for this function. Because harbour seals (Phoca vitulina)
and porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) are common in the area, the effect of
the ACME system on their behaviour needs to be tested. The parameters that can
influence effects include frequency (the four sounds used in this system have a
frequency of 72 kHz), amplitude at the source, amplitude received by the
animals, the time of day that the sounds are transmitted, and the hearing
sensitivity of the animal in question. A project to assess the impact of the
ACME system on harbour seals was carried out in Ouwehands Zoo, Rhenen, in May
and June 2003. The project was undertaken by the research bureau Sea Mammal
Research Company (Seamarco) and biologist R.A. Kastelein, and the results will
be published in the journal Marine Environmental Research. While the
project is not completed, it appears that all four sounds proposed for use in
the ACME system do influence the behaviour of the seals. The same was found
during an assessment of the effects of ACME on two common porpoises held at
Neeltje Jans Waterland. A series of four follow-up projects will be carried out
to definitively establish how the sounds influence the behaviour of the two
species.]
van
der Zanden, R.: Murugan: de mislukte kansen voor het EEP. (Murugan: missed chances for the EEP.) De
Harpij Vol. 22, No. 4 (2003), pp. 10–13. [Dutch, with English summary. The
Asian elephant bull Murugan arrived at Amsterdam Zoo in 1954, when he was less
than two years old. He had close contact with the public in his younger years:
children were allowed to ride on his back, and he was sometimes taken on
strolls through the city to serve as a live advertisement for the zoo. While it
was highly desirable for Murugan to sire offspring, as he was unrelated to any
other elephants in the Asian Elephant EEP, this did not come to pass. Murugan
learned how to sexually relieve himself using a water barrel and made little
attempt to mount the two cows, Suseela and Jumbo, with whom he shared an
enclosure. Because of Murugan's genetic value, the elephant care consultant
Alan Roocroft came to Amsterdam to target train Murugan to enter his
specially-built crush so that semen could be collected via anal massage. While
the target training was useful in enabling the keepers to carry out some
treatments such as frequently-needed toenail trimmings, Murugan refused to be
enclosed in the crush and semen collection was not possible.
Murugan
was euthanized just a couple of months after his fiftieth birthday because of
various physical disabilities that were presumably quite painful. Throughout
his life he remained a placid and approachable animal; he submitted to
apparently painful medical treatments and did not require special bull
facilities. A final attempt to collect Murugan's semen at his death was made,
but the sperm was immotile. His death is much mourned, but it is hoped that the
elephant herd at the zoo, now including the adolescent bull Nicolai and the two
aging females Suseela and Jumbo, will continue to grow and change, so that an
elephant birth may eventually take place.]
van Wees, M.: Het EEP voor de
Aziatische olifanten: dikhuiden op de goede weg. (The Asian Elephant EEP:
pachyderms make progress.) De Harpij Vol. 22, No. 4 (2003), pp. 2–6.
[Dutch, with English summary. The EEP has been in existence for ten years, and
while it is still early to evaluate its long-term success, breeding results are
clearly improving. Between 1983 and 1993, 30 elephants were born in Europe and
34 died. A total of 72 elephants have been born since 1993, but 103 have died.
This is in part due to the number of older animals in the population. A total
of 75 elephants were imported between 1983 and 1993, and 50 have been imported
since 1993. The importation of Asian elephants to Europe, except those given as
royal gifts, has now completely stopped.
The
EEP population in 1993 consisted of 298 (50.248) animals, and in 2003 numbers
60.240. There are many older animals in the studbook, and experience has shown
that cows breeding for the first time at more than 20 years of age usually
encounter serious complications, and should not be considered part of the
breeding population. Therefore the potential breeding population actually
consists of 43.104 elephants, most of which have been imported since 1983. A
target population of 30 breeding bulls and 150 cycling cows has been set. While
this goal is still far away, success is being achieved more quickly than
anticipated. It was expected that there would be ten breeding facilities in
2003, but instead there were 16, with one holding two breeding bulls. With the
number of elephant facilities currently being built or planned, it is expected
that there will be 30 breeding facilities in another ten years. Given how
expensive good facilities are to build in the colder European climate, this is
quite a commitment. Zoos in Flemish Belgium and the Netherlands are important
in providing needed spaces.
Some
policies on transfers and breeding practice have been set. Cows sent from one
zoo to another should be sent in family groups. Bulls should be replaced in a
zoo after eight to ten years of breeding to ensure genetic variability.
Whenever possible a zoo should hold two bulls. The EEP coordinator, Ton
Dorresteyn, director of Rotterdam Zoo, decides which elephants should be sent
where. Zoos that do not follow recommended transfers are liable for sanctions
from EAZA. Zoos that cannot hold more than two or three elephants are not
considered breeding units, but can support the EEP by holding animals surplus
to the breeding programme. While transfers of bulls rather than cows for
breeding purposes more closely mimics the natural Asian elephant breeding
structure, transfer of bulls remains the more logistically difficult option.
Nevertheless, it is being striven for, with artificial insemination being a
possibility when natural breeding is not possible. Research is being carried
out on herpes, pox and tuberculosis, as these diseases threaten the captive
population.
While
reintroduction or restocking of Asian elephant populations is not viewed at
this time as a conservation option (the emphasis should be on habitat
protection), elephants in zoos can serve as impressive ambassadors for their
wild counterparts that do need the habitat protection.]
Vialpando, P.S., and Kulkosky, P.J.:
Effects of an environmental enrichment on the behavior of captive pygmy goats (Capra
hircus). Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 11 (2003), pp.
459–465.
Volf,
J.: Przewalskipferd – ein Wild- oder ein Haustier? (The Przewalski horse – a wild or domestic
animal?) Der Zoologische Garten Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 312–323.
[German, with English summary. The Przewalski horse was described as early as
1881, but disputes whether it is a really valid new species or not stretched
over several decades. The doubts were provoked first of all by the
extraordinarily high variability of imported individuals, and by the fact that
a certain proportion of domestic blood could not be excluded – in some cases it
was even confirmed. Reports of mating of escaped domestic mares with the
stallions came directly from hunters during the whole existence of the original
wild population, and they were also confirmed by Mongolian and Russian
zoologists. Hybridization of wild and domestic horses also took place during
their breeding in captivity. This was done deliberately at Askania Nova before
and after World War II. Though these hybrids were not officially used in the
breeding programme, DNA analysis proved that mares of `tarpan' type had been
purposely included. Moreover, this analysis also cast doubt upon the
pure-bloodedness of the last wild-caught mare, Orlica III. Because of the
absence of a pure-blooded stallion, the Agricultural Institute of the
University of Halle included a half-blooded individual their breeding group. A pair
of young animals purchased at the beginning of the 1920s for Prague Zoo had 25%
of domestic blood. After 80 years (i.e. 12–15 generations), this ratio has been
reduced to a minimum and from the viewpoint of breeding is insignificant.
Today,
no Przewalski horse's real origin can be defined with certainty, so it is
impossible to guarantee any individual's absolute pure-bloodedness. Besides,
incorrect identification of animals at some breeding stations, loss of
documentation, and more recently unregistered transfers and the dispersal of
breeding groups, must be taken into consideration. Despite all this, however,
the influence of domestic horses on the current captive-bred Przewalski
population should not be overestimated. A more important negative factor is the
domestication process, intensified by the very narrow genetic base and by the
long-term absence of individuals from the wild. The domestication process
manifests itself not only in the exterior of individual animals, but also from
a morphological, ethological and physiological viewpoint.]
Webster, S.J.G.: Can primates
receive adequate primary diet from an enrichment unit? Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 10 (2003), pp. 420–422. [White-throated capuchin (Cebus
capucinus).]
Williams, T.: Blackpool Zoo helps
with ground-breaking elephant conservation project in India. Zoos' Print
Vol. 18, No. 11 (2003), pp. 20–21. [The Indian government has made the
microchipping of captive Asian elephants mandatory.]
Winkler,
A.: Neueste Erkenntnisse zur Biologie, Haltung und Zucht der Fossa (Cryptoprocta
ferox). (Latest findings
on the biology, husbandry and breeding of the fossa.) Der Zoologische Garten
Vol. 73, No. 5 (2003), pp. 296–311. [German, with English summary. Over the
past 28 years detailed knowledge on the biology, general husbandry and breeding
of the fossa has been gathered at Duisburg Zoo, with additional information
obtained from other zoos. Fossas can be kept either singly or in pairs. It is
important to provide a large and well-structured exhibit to meet the natural
requirements of these very agile animals, who are largely diurnal in habit, and
live both on the ground and in the trees. Fossas show a clearly defined
breeding season, during which the pairs regularly mate on a daily basis. The
actual mating can last for well over one hour. Usually one to four youngsters
are born after a gestation of 53 to 60 days. The young are cared for solely by
the mother. The development of young fossas is very slow – sexual maturity is
reached after three years. Their longevity is believed to be more than 20
years.]
Winton, C.: Hand-rearing brolga at
Auckland Zoo. Thylacinus Vol. 27, No. 4 (2003), pp. 4–7. [Grus
rubicundus.]
Zoer,
R.: De jacht is zo gek nog niet. (Hunting is not so crazy.) De Harpij Vol. 22, No. 4 (2003), pp.
20–24. [Dutch, with English summary. The author, a student in wildlife
management in Pretoria, went to South Africa with a feeling (probably shared by
most Dutch people) that hunting animals is bad, but since living there he has
come to view hunting differently. Because of the amounts of money that people
are willing to pay to hunt some animals and the relatively low value of the
land for agriculture, the animals are now viewed as a valuable asset. This use
of private land actually functions to protect wildlife habitat: 13% of private
land in South Africa is oriented towards wildlife, so wildlife ranches form an
important part of the 10% quota of `protected area' required by international
law. Because of its consequently healthy wildlife populations, South Africa
serves as an important reservoir for restocking efforts for animal populations
in many other African countries. The revenues made by hunting can far exceed
other uses of wildlife such as ecotourism, and hunting can serve a double
function in culling problem animals or reducing too large populations. Hunting
and wildlife conservation are intertwined, but a balance must be found.]
Publishers of the periodicals
listed:
Animal Conservation, Zoological Society of London,
Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, U.K.
Animal Keepers' Forum, American Association of Zoo
Keepers, 3601 S.W. 29th Street, Suite 133, Topeka, Kansas 66614, U.S.A.
Avicultural Magazine, Membership Secretary, Stewart
Pyper, 21 Primrose Hill, Nunney, Frome, Somerset BA11 4NP, U.K.
De
Harpij, Stichting De Harpij, Van Aerssenlaan 49, 3039 KE Rotterdam, The
Netherlands.
Milu,
Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde, Am Tierpark 125, D-1136 Berlin, Germany.
Parrot Society Magazine, Parrot Society, 108b Fenlake Road,
Bedford MK42 0EU, U.K.
Ratel, Association of British Wild Animal Keepers,
c/o Michelle Pywell, Welsh Mountain Zoo, Colwyn Bay, Conwy LL28 5UY, U.K.
Thylacinus, Australasian Society of Zoo
Keeping, P.O. Box 248, Healesville, Victoria 3777, Australia.
Tyto, International Owl Society, 5 Sorrel Close,
Braiswick, Colchester, Essex CO4 5UL, U.K.
Zeitschrift
des Kölner Zoo, Zoologischer Garten, Riehler Strasse 173, D-50735 Köln,
Germany.
Zoo Biology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605
Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158, U.S.A.
Der
Zoologische Garten, Urban & Fischer Verlag GmbH, P.O. Box 100537,
D-07705 Jena, Germany.
Zoos' Print, Zoo Outreach Organisation, Box
1683, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 004, India.