International
Zoo News Vol. 50/7 (No. 328) October/November
2003
CONTENTS
OBITUARIES
– Dr Hans Frädrich; Jack Corney
EDITORIAL
FEATURE
ARTICLES
Fossa Behavior and Exhibit Use Sean T. McCarthy, Kristen E. Lukas,
at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Alan L. Sironen and David Winkler
The Itinerant Ark: Insights Na'ama Y. Ben-David
from the Wandering Zoo
Dortmund Zoo – A Passion Frank Brandstätter
for South America's Wildlife
The
Sense and Nonsense of the Walk-through: Erik
van Vliet
Amersfoort Zoo's New Nocturnal
Exhibit
Letters
to the Editor
Book
Review
Annual
Reports
International
Zoo News
Recent
Articles
* * *
OBITUARIES
Hans
Frädrich, 1937–2003
On 13 September 2003, Dr Hans
Frädrich, former director of Berlin Zoological Gardens, died at the age of 66
after having suffered from a serious illness, endured with exemplary patience.
He worked for altogether 36 years in the Berlin Zoo, and for 11 years as its
director.
Hans Frädrich was born on 4 July
1937, the son of Dr Günter Frädrich, a surgeon in Göttingen. Already as a boy
he was very interested in animals and kept at home a whole menagerie of various
fish, reptiles, weaver finches and lovebirds. His bookshelves were filled with
books about animals and zoos, and during his holidays he worked for the firm L.
Ruhe, Germany's largest animal dealers, who at that time operated the
Zoological Gardens of Hanover. In this way he first came into contact with the
world of zoological gardens.
After his final school examinations
Hans Frädrich started to study natural science and Romance languages in
Göttingen, after which he left for the University of Munich. The lectures of
Konrad Lorenz reinforced his wish to work later as a zoologist in a zoo. He
therefore chose to work on a dissertation about larger mammals which he could
only observe in a zoological garden. The theme of his dissertation was the
biology of wild pigs, especially wart hogs. His place of work was Frankfurt
Zoological Gardens, under the late director Bernhard Grzimek. He sent Frädrich
to Kenya to complement his zoo observations by field work. Already before his
graduation in Göttingen in July 1964 he was offered a position as an assistant
in Frankfurt Zoo.
After two years' employment in
Frankfurt, Hans Frädrich became an assistant at Berlin Zoo in 1966. Exactly 25
years later he became its director and held this position for 11 years until
his 65th birthday in July 2002, the day of his retirement. Altogether he worked
for Berlin Zoological Gardens for 36 years. After his retirement he not only
kept in contact with the zoo world, but became a member of the board for Berlin
Zoo and Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde. He also continued with his lectures on
zoo biology for the Free University of Berlin, which were held at Berlin Zoo.
During his directorship the hippo
house, which is unique in Europe, and the modern seal and penguin enclosures
[see pp. 430–1, below – Ed.] were built. Both houses count as exemplary
in the zoo world. Hans Frädrich was not only a progressive zoo man, he also
felt an obligation to the long tradition of Berlin Zoo. During his directorship
a new house for cattle was entirely built in Thai style. As a perfectionist, he
involved not only the Thai embassy but also architects and craftsmen from
Thailand to take part in the planning and construction.
Even under the directorship of his
predecessor, Professor Heinz-Georg Klös, Hans Frädrich was responsible for many
changes and modernizations in the zoo – for example, the alteration of the
rocky enclosure for mountain goats and sheep or the house for antelopes. Very
often it was Dr Frädrich whose ideas on animal keeping led Berlin Zoo into the
future. He was a zoo man par excellence. Many of the ideas he realized during
his 36 years at Berlin Zoo will outlast his death.
Hans Frädrich was not only a good
zoo man but also an excellent writer and author of many articles and
publications for scientific journals. Apart from that, he was co-author and
author of various books on Berlin Zoo. In 1977 he co-launched Berlin Zoo's
journal Bongo, which appears once a year, and he put his stamp on it in
the years to follow. He was active in many scientific societies in Berlin and
throughout Germany.
With the death of Hans Frädrich not
only both Berlin zoos, but also the whole zoo world, lose an expert and a
personality who dedicated his whole life to zoos and nature conservation.
Jürgen
Lange
[I never met Hans Frädrich, but
we corresponded from time to time, and he was always extremely friendly and
supportive of my work with IZN. I particularly treasure a letter he sent
[published in IZN 40 (3), p. 31] in enthusiastic agreement with an
editorial in which I had criticized the then New York Zoological Society for
abandoning the use of the word `zoo'. No doubt Dr Frädrich was as pleased as I
was to see how the name `the Bronx Zoo' has triumphantly survived the misguided
attempt to abolish it. – Nicholas Gould.]
Jack
Corney, 1924–2003
Jack Corney, the owner of the Isle
of Wight Zoo in Sandown, U.K., died at his home on 15 August, aged 79. After
war service as an RAF pilot, Corney took up engineering as a career, eventually
forming his own successful company. But he always thought it was his destiny to
work with animals, and in 1976 acquired the run-down, 20-year-old Sandown Zoo,
described by The Times newspaper as `the slum zoo of Britain'. In the
years that followed, as John Tuson recently wrote [IZN 50 (4), p. 222],
the collection was `redeveloped, revitalised and reborn, to the extent that it
is now a satisfactory small zoo with a clear sense of purpose and much to
commend it.'
Initially Jack Corney's big
enthusiasm was reptiles, and the zoo gained a reputation for its work with
venomous snakes – Corney was bitten on four occasions, three times ending up in
intensive care. In later years, however, the speciality became big cats, in
particular tigers. The zoo's first pair, Shere Khan and Tamyra, produced and
reared 30 cubs. In the 1990s lemurs became another focal group; the zoo now
keeps four species and is becoming involved in in situ work in
Madagascar.
Like several other founders of
successful British zoos, Jack Corney started out with little formal zoological
knowledge, but his enthusiasm and willingness to welcome expert guidance
enabled him to create an excellent small zoo. A particularly pleasing aspect is
the recognition that every animal is an individual – the zoo's website includes
lively `character sketches' of many of the animals, a feature other zoos might
do well to follow. Jack Corney's family will carry on his work, and plan that
the zoo will continue to specialise, concentrating its efforts on the
conservation and breeding of a limited range of species.
Nicholas
Gould
* * *
EDITORIAL
A brief article in the scientific
journal Nature (Vol. 425, p. 473, 2 October 2003) claims that `animals
that roam over a large territory in the wild do not take kindly to being
confined,' and consequently suggests that zoos should perhaps stop housing such
animals and `concentrate instead on species that respond better to being kept
in captivity.' The authors, Ros Clubb and Georgia Mason of Oxford University
Department of Zoology's Animal Behaviour Research Group, start by stating that
`some species – ring-tailed lemurs and snow leopards, for example – apparently
thrive in captivity, whereas others, such as Asian elephants and polar bears,
are prone to problems that include poor health, repetitive stereotypic
behaviour and breeding difficulties.' To investigate `this previously
unexplained variation in captive animals' welfare' they focus on caged
carnivores, and try to `show that it stems from constraints imposed on the
natural behaviour of susceptible animals, with wide-ranging lifestyles in the
wild predicting stereotypy and the extent of infant mortality in captivity.'
There is an a priori
plausibility about this theory, and it certainly deserves to be considered, but
the article left me with a faint suspicion that the authors had decided
beforehand what it was that they wanted to prove. Certainly, the figures they
present – for their argument is essentially a statistical one – seem altogether
inadequate to prove their case. They take stereotypic pacing and high infant
mortality as indicators of poor captive well-being, and try to establish a
correlation between the frequency of their occurrence in various carnivore
species and the minimum sizes of those species' home ranges in the wild.
Unfortunately, they do not publish all the data they used: but graphs plotting
the two behavioural indicators against range areas in about 20 species –
American mink, Arctic fox, lion and polar bear are the only ones identified –
do seem to show that some correlation exists.
Many questions, however, remain
unanswered. The lion is given high scores for both infant mortality and
stereotypy – on the latter, indeed, even higher than the polar bear. Yet the
average visitor probably forms the justifiable impression that most zoo lions
lead lives of contented indolence; and centuries of experience seem to show
that this species breeds well in a great variety of confined environments.
Indeed, if infant mortality is the criterion, wild lions probably do worse than
most zoo ones – George Schaller calculated that in the Serengeti two-thirds of
cubs die within their first year. It is curious, too, that the authors mention
the snow leopard as a species which they admit does well in captivity; this
seems to undermine their case at the outset, for on average wild snow leopards
probably have larger home ranges than lions (or, indeed, any other carnivore
except the polar bear). In the Ngorongoro Crater 100 lions were once counted in
181 km2 (i.e. 55 per 100 km2). This is admittedly
unusual, and was presumably ignored by Clubb and Mason in their estimates of
minimum home ranges. At the other extreme, 1.5–2.0 per 100 km2 is an
estimate for lions in the Kalahari Desert. Wild snow leopards have been less
studied, but published information suggests a minimum of 20 km2 as
an individual's range, or five animals per 100 km2: in poor habitat,
a figure similar to that of Kalahari lions seems more typical.
In poor habitat – there, I would suggest, is the
key to a major flaw in Clubb and Mason's argument. Carnivores don't choose to
have large ranges because they enjoy long-distance walking, but because in some
environments only a large range can provide them with the necessities of life –
potential mates, drinking water and, above all, adequate numbers of prey. When
plentiful food is available in a restricted area, they happily tolerate
astonishingly high densities, like those Ngorongoro lions, or the polar bears
around Churchill on Hudson Bay (where in the past up to 40 bears could be seen
on one garbage dump!). The authors' statement that `a [zoo] polar bear's
typical enclosure size . . . is about one-millionth of its minimum home-range
size' unfortunately (but not unexpectedly) found its way into the national
media in Britain, with the natural inference being drawn that polar bears
cannot possibly be provided with suitable conditions in zoos.
`Our results show,' Clubb and Mason
declare, `to our knowledge for the first time [my italics], that a
particular lifestyle in the wild confers vulnerability to welfare problems in
captivity.' Curious – I'd have thought that reducing welfare problems by
finding husbandry methods compatible with the particular lifestyles of
different species was something zoos had put in a good deal of work on over the
last century or so. Whether any species are, in the authors' words, `inherently
likely to fare badly in zoos and similar establishments,' is debatable.
(Cetaceans are perhaps the most likely candidates.) What is certain is that all
good zoos are aware of the problems, and are devoting a great deal of research
and expense to solving them through improved enclosure design, environmental
enrichment and other measures. Practical experience seems to show that many
animals whose wild life-styles involve a great deal of travelling – not just
carnivores, but a wide range of species from fruit bats and desert antelopes to
migratory or pelagic birds and sea fishes – can lead healthy and contented
lives, and reproduce successfully, in spatially restricted man-made habitats.
Wide-ranging carnivores present
special difficulties for in situ conservation. They need large areas of
fairly unspoilt habitat with adequate populations of prey species, and many of
their human neighbours view them primarily as a threat to livestock – think of
the plight of all Asia's big cats, or the Iberian lynx, or the few surviving
wolves in Norway. For some species, zoo breeding programmes seem to offer the
best – or perhaps only – hope of survival. In their final paragraph, Ros Clubb
and Georgia Mason come near to acknowledging this fact, and admit that
improving the husbandry of such animals in zoos is urgently desirable. It is a
pity that the general tone of their article gives the impression that they
strongly doubt whether such improvement is possible.
Nicholas
Gould
* * *
FOSSA
BEHAVIOR AND EXHIBIT USE AT CLEVELAND METROPARKS ZOO
BY
SEAN T. MCCARTHY, KRISTEN E. LUKAS, ALAN L. SIRONEN AND DAVID WINKLER
Introduction
The fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)
is the largest predator native to Madagascar and hunts a wide variety of
animals including fish, birds, insects, a variety of small mammals, and
especially lemurs (Croke, 2000). In fact, the fossa is the only Malagasy
predator capable of hunting the adults of all lemur species (Dollar, 1999). It
is surprisingly powerful for its size, but still extremely fast and agile when
pursuing prey through the trees or on the ground. The powerful forelimbs are
used to pin the prey down as a lethal bite is administered to the back of the
head or neck (Garbutt, 1999). It has been described as pound-for-pound the
deadliest carnivore in nature (Croke, 2000).
The fossa appears to be more
sensitive to habitat changes than many animals. This is characteristic of
carnivores, because they rely on a healthy food chain in order to stay alive.
It has been estimated that approximately 90% of the original forests of
Madagascar have been destroyed (Bradley, 2000). In addition to destruction of
the fossa's environment, humans serve as the animal's only predator. There is a
lot of local folklore about fossas stealing children out of cribs or killing
entire coops of chickens with their flatulence alone! Many people will shoot
fossas on sight because of these tales, but also because domestic chickens are
eaten by the fossa. Because of over-hunting and destruction of habitat, fossa
numbers have dropped below 2,500 individuals and it was upgraded from
Vulnerable to Endangered status in 2000 (Zachariah, 2000). Yet the presence of
fossas is a great benefit to local farmers because they prey upon rat and wild
pig populations that destroy crops.
The fossa occupies the native
forests and wooded savannas of Madagascar up to an altitude of 2,600 m
(Garbutt, 1999). Being one of only eight native predators on the island, it
plays a key role in the ecosystem by keeping the population of its prey in
check. Without the fossa, numbers of many prey species, especially lemurs, would
explode. This would result in a change in plant growth, resulting in an
unnatural reconstruction of the entire ecosystem (Dollar, 1999). Therefore, the
disappearance of the fossa would probably result in the disappearance of many
species of lemurs and other animals lower in the food chain.
Although it is classified in the
Viverridae family, the fossa possesses many cat-like characteristics. The
overall body shape suggests feline roots, and even its molars resemble those of
cats, but its low-slung body and the shape of its skull place it in the
Viverridae (Croke, 2000). It has reddish-brown fur with a cream-colored
underside. An average adult stands about 37 cm tall at the shoulder and has a
body that is 61–80 cm long with a tail that is equal in length to its body,
normally weighing 7–12 kg (Nowak, 1999).
The fossa was originally thought to
be nocturnal or crepuscular, but Dollar (1999) describes its activity pattern
as cathemeral, or non-period-specific. This coincides with the activity pattern
of the larger lemur species, which are the favored prey of the fossa (Dollar,
1999). This pattern allows the fossa to hunt its preferred prey easily, as well
as providing great flexibility while hunting a wide variety of other prey.
In the wild, the mating season is in
September and October, with births occurring in December and January after a
gestation period of three months. A litter normally contains two young, but it
is not uncommon to have up to four (Zachariah, 2000). The young are blind and
toothless at birth, but have fur. They do not leave the den until two or three
months after birth, and are weaned at four or five months (Garbutt, 1999). The
young leave their mothers at 15–20 months and sexual maturity is reached around
three years (Parker, 1990).
Little research has been performed
on the fossa. The natural population has only recently been studied (Dollar et
al., 1997; Dollar, 1999; Dollar, pers. comm.; Goodman et al., 1997),
but little systematic research has been conducted with the 70+ specimens in captivity
around the world, about 24 of which are in North America (ISIS, 2003). A number
of reports on the breeding of fossas in captivity are available (Albignac,
1975; Hornsey, 1999; Kopel, 1998).
Cleveland Metroparks Zoo (CMZ) was
fortunate to have a three-year-old male fossa on exhibit during the summer of
2002, with plans to import a female companion during the fall of 2002. Because
there was a lack of information published on the behavior of captive fossas,
this project was mainly descriptive in nature. For example, not much was known
about how fossa behavior varies across time of day in captivity, or to what
extent the fossa utilized its exhibit furnishings. In addition, information
gathered through this study was to serve as baseline data for comparison of the
male's behavior when a female was introduced in fall 2002, as little
information is known about the social behavior of the fossa (Winkler, 2002).
Subject
and Methods
The subject was one male fossa on
exhibit in the Primate, Cat and Aquatic building at CMZ. The animal was born at
San Antonio Zoo, Texas, on 24 June 1999 as the only male in a litter of three,
and was parent-reared. He arrived at Cleveland on 1 May 2001.
Wood paneling formed three walls of
the exhibit (4.5 m ´ 3.5 m ´ 2.1 m), and the front wall was the
viewing window (4.7 m wide). The exhibit measured 3.7 m high with a skylight
window and artificial light provided by fluorescent bulbs. Wood chips covered
approximately half the ground space and the rest was bare concrete that was shaped
into rock formations in some places (see photo, below). Occasionally, straw was
placed on top of half of the wood chips. Three terrestrial logs were placed on
the exhibit floor. Three additional large logs were placed vertically on their
ends to simulate trees. One elevated, or `arboreal', log sat about 1.5 m off
the floor and ran parallel to the front glass while another arboreal log ran
nearly perpendicular to the other log and attached to it, forming a `T' shape.
Occasionally, a shallow metal container (measuring 0.6 m ´ 0.6 m ´ 1 m)
filled with a sand/gravel mix served as a litter box. One free-standing
enclosure furnishing that was occasionally provided was a large, sturdy plastic
ball.
Diet and method of feeding were
consistent with available guidelines for the husbandry of captive fossa
(Winkler, 2001). Feeding consisted of an approximately 280 g chunk of horsemeat
(with calcium supplement) and 280 g of processed canine food every day, except
for twice a week when a whole (thawed) rabbit, chicken, or guinea pig was
given. The food was normally presented in a switch cage to assist in shifting
the subject for exhibit cleaning. It was often difficult to get the animal to
move from cage to cage, and he was occasionally fasted for one day if he refused
to switch. He was fed in the morning between 7:30 and 9:00 hrs or in the
evening between 16:30 and 17:30 hrs, and therefore usually had access to food
on exhibit. When a whole thawed animal (rabbit, chicken, etc.) was given as
food, he would take several hours to ingest the whole animal. In addition,
after some exhibit cleanings chunks of meat would be hidden throughout the
exhibit and the fossa would eat them whenever he came across them throughout
the day. Enrichment usually consisted of small branches with leaves placed
randomly throughout the exhibit. No unnatural materials other than the plastic
ball were added to the exhibit because of the danger of ingestion.
Data were collected from 1 July to 9
August 2002. The observation sessions were balanced across five time slots
throughout the day (8:00–10:00, 10:00–12:00, 12:00–14:30, 14:30–17:00,
17:00–19:00). The time that the sessions began was the time used to place the
session in one of the time slots. Thirty minutes had to elapse between the end
of one session and the start of a new session.
An observation session lasted for 30
minutes. A stopwatch was started to begin each session. At 30-second intervals,
we recorded the subject's substrate, posture, and behavior (see Ethogram, Table
1). We recorded all-occurrence behaviors continuously. The substrate on which
urination or defecation occurred was recorded as well. We conducted 47
observation sessions for a total of 23.5 observation hours. Data were
summarized and graphed in Microsoft Excel 2000.
Results
Results suggest the subject spent
approximately 85% of his time in an inactive state (rest alert or sleeping).
Only 15% of his time was spent performing other behaviors, which were
categorized as active. Also, the subject was on a soft substrate (wood chips,
straw, or sand) 77% of the time, followed by hard terrestrial (cement and logs)
at 19%, and only 4% of his time was spent arboreal. Of the 85% of time spent
inactive, 65% was spent sleeping and 20% was spent in an alert but resting
state.
Regarding posture, the subject spent
most time reclining in a curled position (32%) or on his side (35%), followed
by reclining on his belly (8%) or back (8%). Total percentage of time spent
reclining (83%) corresponded closely with time spent inactive (85%). Other postures
included remaining upright (10%) and sitting (7%).
When the subject was active, he was
most often engaging in self-directed (grooming, scratching, stretching)
behaviors (4%) and locomotion (4%). Walking (3.4%) dominated the other modes of
locomotion recorded including leaping (0.2%), running (0.2%), and climbing
(0.2%). Other active behaviors included object-directed (chewing, digging,
marking) behavior (2%) and ingestion (2%). An abnormal behavior was recorded
only one time (1%) and this was an episode of regurgitation and reingestion.
Some carnivores will regurgitate in order to feed young, but this subject was
observed reingesting his own vomit. Although it was recorded as an abnormal
behavior, it is possible that this behavior is normal for this species. `Other'
active behaviors accounted for the other 1.5% of the activity budget.
With the ingestion pattern across
time of day, higher levels were observed from 8:00 to 10:00 and from 14:30 to
19:00, the time periods that the subject was normally presented with food.
Overall activity across time of day followed a similar trend.
Finally, the all-occurrence data
suggest a reaction to an action of a visitor was the most frequently observed
event with a rate of once per hour. Note the difference between the two methods
of marking the exhibit; mount and thrust was used much more frequently than the
squat and drag method. The behavior we named `spasm' was recorded as taking
place at a rate of about 0.5 occurrences per hour.
Discussion
This project aimed to describe the
basic activity budget and enclosure use of one male fossa. Results suggest a
low level of activity, which would be considered normal for most carnivores in
captivity. The pattern of substrate use was related to the activity pattern:
the subject spent a greater amount of time on soft substrates because he seemed
to prefer them while sleeping and resting. Garbutt (1999) described fossas as
occasionally resting in caves and dens, but preferring to sleep in trees.
However, the subject in the current study only spent about 4% of his time in
elevated spaces provided in his exhibit. It is possible that his arboreal
exhibit furnishings do not satisfy his needs for arboreal resting space.
Exhibit modifications that increase the number or quality of elevated spaces
might increase species-typical behavior. Comparative studies between
institutions with exhibits of varying heights might elucidate the relationship
between complex elevated spaces and behavior.
Recent studies have shown that wild
fossas follow a cathemeral, or non-period-specific activity pattern. In the
current study, the subject's ingestion behavior and activity level was largely
dependent on the feeding schedule. Because many carnivores have been observed
to develop stereotypic behaviors in response to fixed feeding schedules
(Carlstead, 1998), care must be taken to provide a wide range of behavioral
opportunities in the periods surrounding feeding times. Fortunately, the
subject in this study exhibited very low, if not non-existent, levels of
undesirable behavior. However, the subject's locomotor patterns suggest he had
no need to exert greater energy by using modes of locomotion other than walking
to move around the exhibit. More exuberant movements such as leaping or
climbing would normally be used while pursuing prey, something that a captive
fossa is not likely to experience. Expanding the types of enrichment used for
feeding, altering food presentation techniques, and incorporating hunting lure
scents, food-delivering devices, or other enrichment techniques might prevent
the development of abnormal behavior patterns in this specimen and
alternatively encourage natural hunting behaviors.
The rapid bouts of running, climbing
and leaping we termed `spasms' were very interesting to observe. It is possible
that this behavior is reminiscent of the need for wild fossas to have a quick
burst of energy while pursuing prey, for we observed unexplainable bouts of
rapid activity. There was a great deal of variability in this behavior; it
might occur many times in rapid succession, then not again for hours. For
example, one data session reported 11 spasms in one half-hour (the data from
that session were not used due to its outlying status). Again, different
feeding techniques might help channel this behavior into a species-typical
hunting response.
There are many questions that remain
to be answered regarding fossas, both in the wild and in captivity. This
project aimed only to be descriptive in nature, but there are many
possibilities for future studies. First, it is known that wild fossas are least
active during the hottest and coldest parts of the day. By altering light and
temperature levels within the exhibit it would be possible to better understand
how their behavior varies.
There are also some questions that
pertain to fossa offspring. Many females exhibit genital mimicry of the males,
but not all young show this trait. It would be beneficial to know how many
offspring exhibit this trait should any mating occur in captivity. Another
interesting study pertaining to fossa offspring deals with differences in
aggression between males and females. Females have a higher testosterone level
when they are young than any other time in their lives. It is thought that this
occurs to cause the female young to be as aggressive as their brothers. This
prevents them from being underfed when they are young and enables them to
compete with male siblings for food. By monitoring aggression levels and
comparing them between the sexes this process could be better understood.
Although the findings from this
research would have been more generalizable if there had been more subjects
involved or if it had been conducted at multiple institutions, we found the
information we gathered was useful for informing management decisions. For
example, modifications to exhibit substrates and elevated spaces were made in
response to information gained through the study. In addition, this is the
first published account of systematic data collection on the behavior of Cryptoprocta
ferox and may serve as a model for conducting multi-institutional studies
on fossa behavior in the future. The ethogram is currently being modified to
include social behaviors in preparation for data collection on an upcoming
introduction of the male to a female. Continued data collection on his behavior
during the introduction period will provide additional information on the
management and breeding of fossas in captivity.
Acknowledgements
This project was possible only
through the generosity of the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo and its staff. Thank you
to Kym Parr, Laura Cancino, and Tad Schoffner for their assistance at the zoo
and to Dr Luke Dollar for his generosity of time and information in response to
requests from the first author.
References
Albignac, R. (1975): Breeding the fossa (Cryptoprocta
ferox) at the Montpellier Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 15:
147–150.
Bradley, M. (2000): On the trail of the fossa. Tennessee
Alumnus Vol. 80, No. 4.
Carlstead, K. (1998): Determining the causes of
stereotypic behaviors in zoo carnivores: toward appropriate enrichment
strategies. In Second Nature: Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals
(ed. D.J. Shepherdson, J.D. Mellen, and M. Hutchins), pp. 172–183. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Croke, V. (2000): The deadliest carnivore. Discover
(April 2000): 69–75.
Dollar, L. (1999): Preliminary report on the
status, activity cycle and ranging of Cryptoprocta ferox in the Malagasy
rainforest, with implications for conservation. Small Carnivore Conservation
(IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid and Procyonid Specialist Group) 20: 7–10.
Garbutt, N. (1999): Mammals of Madagascar.
Pica Press, East Sussex, U.K.
Goodman, S.M., Langrand, O., and
Rasolonandrasana, B.P.N. (1997): The food habits of Cryptoprocta ferox
in the high mountain zone of the Andringitra Massif, Madagascar. Mammalia
61 (2): 185–192.
Hornsey, T. (1999): Breeding the fossa at
Suffolk Wildlife Park. International Zoo News 46 (7): 407–417.
Kopel, E.M. (1998): Fossa breeding at the San
Antonio Zoo. Animal Keepers' Forum 25 (11): 430–431.
Macdonald, D. (1984): The Encyclopedia of
Mammals. Facts on File, New York.
Nowak, R.M. (1999): Walker's Mammals of the
World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Parker, S.P. (1990): Grzimek's Encyclopedia
of Mammals (Vol. 3: pp. 533–535). McGraw-Hill, New York.
Winkler, A. (2002): Husbandry Guidelines for
the Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox). Duisburg Zoo, Germany.
Zachariah, T. (2000): Cryptoprocta ferox.
The Animal Diversity Web – University of Michigan website (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu).
Corresponding author: Kristen E.
Lukas, Ph.D., Curator of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo,
3900 Wildlife Way, Cleveland, Ohio 44109, U.S.A. (Phone: (216) 635–3314;
Fax: (216) 661–3312; E-mail: kel@clevelandmetroparks.com)
Table
1. Ethogram for studying behavior of captive fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox).
SUBSTRATE*
Code Substrate Definition
ST Straw Straw scattered over the exhibit floor, usually
on the wood chips. Occasionally absent.
WC Wood
chipsSmall pieces of wood that are scattered across the exhibit floor at a
thickness of several inches.
CM CementHard,
rock-like substance that forms most of the floor of the exhibit; shaped like
rocks in some areas, flat and smooth in others.
SG Sand/GravelA
mixture of small rocks and sand kept within a shallow metal container.
Occasionally absent.
LT Terrestrial
logPieces of tree trunks that are lying on the exhibit floor.
LA Arboreal
logTree branches that have been affixed above the exhibit floor; includes the
upright logs that support them.
* The substrate that was recorded
was the one where most of the subject's body was touching. If the subject was
standing with two feet on one substrate and two on another, the substrate where
the hind legs were located was the one recorded.
POSTURE
Code Posture Definition
LS Reclining
on sideOne hip touching the ground; one shoulder or no shoulders may be
touching the ground.
LB Reclining
on belly No shoulders or hips
touching the ground.
LK Reclining
on back Both shoulders touching the
ground.
ST Sitting Only the rear of the subject is in
contact with the ground, the front may or may not be supported by the front
legs; often accompanied by scratching or grooming.
UP Upright Normal quadrupedal position with only the
feet touching the ground; includes walking and standing on two or four legs.
BEHAVIOR
Code Behavior Definition
SL Sleep Rest with the eyes closed.
RA Rest
alert Stationary with eyes open and alert
to surroundings; includes yawning and sniffing air.
ST Stretch Fully extending a limb with no
obvious intentions of accomplishing a result from performing the movement.
SC Scratch Running claws over fur; hind
legs normally used.
GR Groom Use of tongue, teeth, or mouth to
manipulate fur and/or skin.
DR Drink Ingestion
of water.
ET Eat Ingestion of food.
WK Walk Quadrupedal forward movement without
losing contact with the substrate.
RN Run Quadrupedal forward movement with brief
loss of contact with substrate.
CL Climb Use of feet to propel oneself up or down
without losing contact with the substrate.
CH Chew Mastication of any non-food item without
ingestion; e.g. chewing a stick.
UR Urinate Release of urine from the body.
DF Defecate Release of feces from the body.
MK Mark Rubbing anal region on any substrate;
can be done as a squat and drag movement or as if mounting the substrate and
thrusting into it.
DG Dig Scratching at the ground with paws to
move the substrate.
LP Leap Locomotion with all four limbs losing
contact with the substrate.
AB Abnormal Includes regurgitation/reingestion, pacing,
and coprophagy (eating feces).
PL Play Activity directed toward the boomer ball
or other similar enrichment; subject normally mounts the ball and shoves it
between its hind legs as it jumps over the ball. The important thing to note is
that the action is directed towards an object as opposed to just
performing an action, like a leap.
IN Inspection Exploring an object or part of exhibit; the
object receiving the inspection must be within six inches [15 cm] of the
subject's face. The subject normally sniffs an object he is inspecting. This
includes sniffing a substrate.
OT Other Any other behaviors not listed
here.
NV Not
visible All or part of the subject is not
visible to the data collector, making it impossible to record a behavior.
ALL-OCCURRENCE
BEHAVIORS
Behavior Definition
Spasm Energetic bout of rapid movement that involves leaping and
running; subject quickly moves about the exhibit, usually leaping between
ground and arboreal logs, with occasional planting on wall.
Visitor Lifting or turning of head in response to visitor activity
(approach, glass-banging, vocalizations, etc.).
Mark: squat & dragPlacing the
anal region on the ground while weight remains on the front paws, followed by a
forward walking movement where the anal region is rubbed against the ground.
Mark: mount & thrustThe subject
grabs an object or substrate with its front paws and then straddles the object
with its hind legs. This is followed by rapid forward movements of the hips directed
at the object.
Urinate/SubstrateThe release of
urine from the body. Record the substrate on which this occurred as well (WC,
ST, SG, etc.).
Defecate/SubstrateThe release of
feces from the body. Record the substrate on which this occurred as well (WC,
ST, SG, etc.).
* * *
THE
ITINERANT ARK: INSIGHTS FROM THE WANDERING ZOO
BY
NA'AMA Y. BEN-DAVID
Introduction
Many zoos employ animals as
educational ambassadors in travelling zoo programmes. The animals are
transported in specially outfitted vehicles called `zoomobiles.' These mobile
mini-zoos contain artifacts and tapes of animal sounds in addition to the live
animals, and make presentations to school groups, the elderly, and at other
events concerning the zoo or conservation causes. In addition, they serve as
outreach tools to promote the zoo and its programmes, boosting attendance and
interest. Since zoomobiles are intended to teach and entertain people of all
ages, their operators are able to customize each appearance to the specific
needs of a particular audience. While the zoomobile is widely popular both as
an educational tool and for its entertainment value, the educational and
entertainment components must be carefully weighed against the impact on the
health of the animals. The handlers must assess the physical and psychological
damage inflicted upon the animals that participate in these programmes –
whether in terms of disorientation, loss of water or nutrition, or stress.
Failing to take the well-being of the animals into account undermines the very
messages of conservation and preservation that the zoomobile programme is
designed to spread.
Research done at the Jerusalem-based
Tisch Family Zoological Gardens (the `Biblical Zoo') has tracked the effect of
a zoomobile-type programme on different species and offers guidelines for
directors and zookeepers who create and participate in similar programmes.
The first show this researcher
participated in with the Biblical Zoo's zoomobile was for a local retirement
home. The audience consisted of people who were exceptionally ill. When the
zoomobile staff began setting up, there was a total lack of response, not even
a flicker of interest in the strange equipment and odd-shaped cages being
unloaded into the recreation room. Even the sound system, with sounds of lions
roaring and siamangs howling, failed to elicit even mild interest. The
beautiful posters of the zoo's hippos, chimpanzees, Burmese pythons and
ostriches were ineffective. The lion skull and the Burmese python skin did not
make an impression either.
The start of the segment with live
animals elicited sudden and startling changes in these people. Suddenly there
was life in the room. People laughed. They thought the panda mice were sweet
and the tortoise's shell was fascinating to touch. The retirement home staff
looked on in amazement as these people were brought back to life, as it were,
and from magic as simple as touching live animals. There was a soft glow on the
faces of the seniors – a gentleness. One woman even cried while petting a small
rabbit. It was clear that the animals had a powerful effect on them, and that
they were changed, even if only temporarily, by the experience. The therapeutic
benefits of a travelling zoo programme and the positive effects animals have on
the elderly were made clear.
The beneficial and even recuperative
effects of animals on the elderly, the infirm, and especially on children are
well documented. Much research chronicles the effects of animals on
hospitalized patients, on autistic children and on the lonely. For example,
Shari Bernard, the founder of Therapet in Texas, brings dogs to visit the
hospitalized and infirm. Bernard `took her canines into nursing homes and
noticed that patients reacted immediately and positively. She also saw that the
staff – some of who were initially wary – were quite often able to witness real
and even dramatic improvement in the patients' condition, even for those who
hadn't been responsive to traditional types of therapy' (Schoen, 2001). Allen
Schoen talks further about the benefits of animals as pets. `It is no
surprise,' he remarks, `. . . that there is a strong connection between an
older person's health and the presence of an animal companion.' In fact, he
continues, `Animal companions played a vital role in moderating age-related
increase in blood pressure.'
Besides the beneficial effects that
animals and, by extension, programmes like zoomobiles have on the elderly, a
study by Gene Myers (1998) monitored a kindergarten class through a whole
school year and observed their interactions with animals and their play,
especially as it pertained to animals. This included imaginative play, stuffed
animals and any live animal interactions that occurred throughout the school
year. He concluded that `animals are directly important in the child's
formation of a sense of self. In the gradual development of the group, their
perceptions of animals changed, as did their playing and imitations of
different types of animals. Children try to imitate an animal's walk and
language, but without anthropomorphizing. They are true to the animal's nature
and individuality.
Traditionally, there is a strong
bond between animals and children. `Animals are symbolic for the child not in
the sense that their meanings are imposed by social or psychic factors. . . but
in the sense of confirming the child's own uniquely human self and representing
and furthering the living, feeling self in a more vivid form than can other
kinds of carriers of meaning' (Myers, 1998). Animals also help children understand
their own surroundings, by the very differences in habitat and life-style
implicit in the animal kingdom. `Children perceive pretend animal identities as
affording an orientation distinct from the ordinary human world with its
structured time and space and its roles and rules of conduct' (Myers, 1998).
The tactile experience [afforded by a zoomobile] helps reinforce learning and
stimulate imagination and imaginative play (Williams, 1999).
Thus, the literature well supports
the real educational benefits of a travelling zoo programme as well. Not only
do animals elicit a response in children, they are a valuable tool whereby
children learn about their surroundings, and their place in the world. But at
what cost to the animals in such programmes?
Review
of literature
To date, there is no research
published on this topic. The topic of animal stress while travelling has not
been addressed or studied. One can only draw peripherally on other research
relating to husbandry and care of species, and base conclusions on observations
and research with the zoomobile programme and its animals in the Jerusalem
Biblical Zoo.
Methodology
Throughout the course of the first
300 workshops to which the Biblical Zoo's zoomobile travelled, 60% of which
were up to 50 miles [80 km] away and 40% of which were 50–120 miles [80–190 km]
away, behavioural changes and altered feeding schedules in some of the animals
were observed, indicating an elevated level of stress. The question arose as to
which species were affected by the travel and handling/petting, and how
severely? Was there a level of tolerance for some animals? For example, one
show a day was all right, but two shows a day would be too stressful? Was there
a way to schedule animals so they would be able to go on the road, and then
rest, in order to relieve them of the stress of travelling? Were there some
species better suited for this kind of programme than others? Was there a means
to assess the levels of stress that the animals experience while travelling and
a way to relieve it while on the road?
Over a five-month period of at least
one show per day, the effects of travelling on different species were studied
by observing changes in their behaviour and feeding activities. A daily record
was kept of which specimen participated in the programme, how long the travel
time was, how many shows it participated in, and whether it exhibited any
effects. After it became clear that some animals were indeed experiencing
elevated stress levels, a roster was created whereby individuals would have a
day or two or more between shows so as to allow them to gain relief from the
stress. Among the data being compiled was the relationship between the
frequency of shows and the changes in the behaviour of the animals. A group of
non-travelling animals of the same species, sex and age was also assembled as a
control group and their behaviour and appetite were compared to those of their
travelling counterparts.
Findings
Some animal species are more
affected than others by this type of programme, a phenomenon that may be due to
the genetics of species-specific personality. Though there are many variables
that may be affecting the psyche of the animals, one key element is that of
docility, or tameness. Animals that are, by nature, tame suffer less from being
handled and petted. Tameness can be a hereditary trait. `There is a genetic
contribution to tameness. Some species are [genetically] more tame than others'
(Grandin, 1998). This propensity towards tameness can be harnessed for the
betterment of the animals' welfare in a travelling zoo programme. As V.S.
Lankin (1997) has shown, `Reduced flight distance in the presence of people is
one of the most obvious behavioural changes accompanying the domestication
process. Tameness is inversely related to flight distance. The capacity to be
tamed (tameability) is moderately heritable and responds well to artificial
selection.' Studies have shown that `wild animals naturally avoid contact with
humans unless habituated to the presence of humans' (van Lawick-Goodall, 1968;
Geist, 1971). If animals become familiar, or habituated, to the presence and
touch of humans, their stress levels remain low when the time comes to be
handled or petted. The habituation process, though stressful at first, can
ultimately reduce the stress the animals feel during shows.
Research has shown that `training
captive animals to engage in various handling procedures can potentially reduce
the distress experienced by both animal and handler' (Reinhardt, 1991, 1996).
Handlers and zookeepers can learn to behave in a non-threatening way as well,
especially when presenting at a show, in order to decrease the stress of the
animal. `Large, rapidly approaching objects are more threatening to animals
than smaller, passive objects and . . . elicit more intense reactions. Animal
handlers can minimize flight distance by exhibiting behaviours that are
non-threatening' (Price, 2002, p. 123). If a handler is aware of the triggers
in a species of the fight/flight response, steps can be taken to ensure that
the catching up and handling of that species is less stressful.
Other key elements in the effort to
reduce stress levels of animals that are travelling and being presented in
shows are cage training, drive training and early habituation. Cage and drive
training methods would involve putting an animal in a cage similar to its
travel cage and driving it around on a semi-regular basis, in order to get it
used to the motions and sensations of travelling, and the confines of its cage.
Habituation is the process whereby animals are handled and petted by different
people, at different times, but always at least once a day, in order to get
them used to being handled. The earlier these training techniques are employed
in an animal's life, the better they work and the less stressful they are to
the animal being trained.
In addition to the profound effect
simply interacting with animals can have on participants, each species
appearing in the Biblical Zoo's zoomobile programme is an educational portal
into conversations about such issues as conservation, predator/prey
relationships, colours in nature and food webs, among others. Below, relevant
topics will be mentioned in the context of applicable animals, along with
findings about the different species' zoomobile experiences.
The following species were
unaffected by the length of travel and frequency of shows: hissing cockroach (Gromphadorina
portentosa), stick insect (Oreophoetes peruana), panda mouse (Mus
musculus) and guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). These species exhibited
no obvious behavioural or feeding changes as a result of travelling and being
handled. The first two species are used to talk about adaptations that animals
make to live in their habitats. The second two are used to discuss
domesticated, familiar animals.
The travelling and display did not
heavily affect the fat sand rats (Psammomys obesus). Sand rats provide
an opening to talk about animals that live in a desert habitat and their unique
adaptations to such a harsh climate. In this study, the specimens ate well and
behaved in a normal fashion, were well behaved when being petted, allowed
themselves to be hand-fed, and in general exhibited no signs of stress.
However, it was noted that although they could do two consecutive days of one
show per day, if they did two shows in the same day, they exhibited elevated
stress levels the next day if they had to travel again. Stress was demonstrated
by their unwillingness to come out of the cage or eat until they returned to
their night cage in the zoo. In addition, one specimen would sometimes bite the
tail of the other and behave in an aggressive fashion. It is therefore
recommended to have at least two teams – three would be preferable – of sand
rats to alternate travelling days and relieve stress.
Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
are a clear favourite with both children and adults – they are certainly more
cuddly than hissing cockroaches! Rabbits are useful to discuss how animals use
their senses (large ears, large black eyes). They travel well and eat well, but
some will not tolerate more than one show per day and display travel stress if
the show is over a half-hour travel time away. A calm rabbit will eat and drink
upon arrival, allow itself to be held and petted, and will not bite. Stress is
exhibited by excessive urination and defecation, panicked running around their
cage when handlers try to catch them, and a lack of appetite. Some specimens
are better suited for longer travel than others and individual species'
personalities may determine their suitability for longer travel.
We have used three different species
of snake on the zoomobile, corn snake (Elaphe guttata), milk snake (Lampropeltis
triangulum) and king snake (L. getulus). It should be noted here
that when travelling with snakes, we placed them in a pillowcase, inside a
properly sized terrarium to ensure their comfort and privacy. We also were
careful not to allow the temperature inside the vehicle to become too cool.
Snakes are great for this type of programme because of the various lessons that
can be learned, whether discussing senses (snakes are deaf) or skins, or
hunting (snakeskin purses). The king snake was the most calm and least affected
by the travel and performance. It allowed itself to be held and petted and
remained calm, even after long drives. The corn snake travelled fairly well,
except in the days prior to moulting and when it was hungry. On those days it
became anxious and would invariably coil itself around the handler's hand in a
tight bracelet, nervously testing the air constantly. The milk snake specimen
was the least suited for the zoomobile. It travelled well but was edgy and did
not allow itself to be held or petted for long during the show, regardless of
length of trip.
The African spurred tortoise (Geochelone
sulcata) is an easily identifiable animal for children. One can discuss
animal homes (shell), protective gear (spikes on shell) and locomotion. The
tortoise travelled well for short distances but longer trips upset its
digestive system. Aside from loose and watery faeces, however, there were no
obvious stress-related behaviours. When the tortoise was used for more than one
show per day, it tended to exhibit stress on the second trip in the form of
biting and lack of appetite. It would also repeatedly seek out a hidden spot in
which to rest and escape the show. When lifted, it would exhibit anxiety and
alarm and thrash its legs about. It would be advisable to use tortoises once
per day only, and to trade off between at least three different specimens. When
taking a tortoise on a long trip, it is suggested that it be given time to
wander around in an enclosed area upon arrival to calm down.
Ferrets (Mustela putorius)
travel well but not over long distances. They are playful and animated, which
makes them good species for zoomobiles. They also provide an opening into
predator/prey, habitat, food web and locomotion discussions. When they are
stressed, however, they can bite and will usually defecate on the surface the
handler places them on. They must have water at all times, and be carefully
watched lest they run away, as they are extremely curious and very fast. If
travelling in pairs, they tend to be more relaxed, but they should not be taken
out on two days in a row or engaged for two shows in a day.
Green iguanas (Iguana iguana)
are hypersensitive. Though they provide easy openings for discussions on
camouflage, dietary changes during development, and arboreal species, they do
not enjoy being handled and tend to become much stressed during travelling. It
is not advisable to take them on long road trips or for more than one show per
day. In addition, the temperature in the vehicle needs to be monitored so that
they do not become too cold. Upon arrival, give iguanas a dish of food and
water and leave them covered somewhere quiet so that they can acclimate. When
exhibiting them for the show, have a branch on a stand for them to perch
comfortably upon. This will further help them to relax. Do not allow people to
touch them unless you can tell that the iguana is indeed calm. They will bite,
scratch and whip their tails when they stressed or excited. It is easy to
conclude that iguanas should be taken on shows sparingly. With over-use, an
iguana will lose weight and turn a brown colour as its metabolism becomes
unbalanced due to excessive travel-related stress.
Siberian hamsters (Phodopus
campbellii) are small and cute and never fail to elicit a response from
children. Their physiology also offers important lessons in colours, camouflage
and adaptation to climate. They travel fairly well and can be used in multiple
shows per day, but they cannot be used two days in a row or they begin to bite.
When travelling, put a small cardboard box or toilet-paper roll in the cage
with them, as something both to hide behind and on which to gnaw. The gnawing
will help them deal with their own stress. Some hamster individuals are more
prone to bite than others; you will need to know your specimens.
Chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera)
are great animals for this type of programme. They provide an opening for a
discussion on endangered species, breeding and reintroduction, trapping and the
fur trade, and various other important lessons. Chinchillas are very sensitive
to sound and become highly agitated in a noisy room. Do not take a chinchilla to
a show hosting more than 20 children, as it will become stressed. If providing
a playpen for the chinchilla, make sure there is also a toy inside to stimulate
it, or a dust bath. This never fails to elicit a response from children.
Chinchillas travel well and do not require much maintenance on the road, except
to ensure that their cage or area is sufficiently cool. They need to be covered
with a dark cloth upon arrival to remain calm. Large, open spaces stress
chinchillas. They should not be used two shows in a row or for two consecutive
days. They are sensitive to over-travelling and exhibit stress symptoms such as
hair loss, weight loss, increased aggression and panicked running in the cage.
They begin to resist being caught up and will bite.
Veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo
calyptratus), though great for lessons in camouflage and a prime example of
an insectivore, do not travel well and do not enjoy being on display. They are
touchy animals, very private and solitary, and become `ornery' when travelling
long distances. They are also hard to hand-feed, especially after a trip. They
will become a dark brown colour, assume threatening displays and sometimes
bite. It is not recommended to use chameleons on this sort of programme except
once in a very long while, for a short trip and a short show – they are not
really well suited for a travelling zoo.
The most markedly affected species
in this programme was the eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus vosmaeri).
Over the course of several months of shows, the parrot became increasingly
distressed and anxious. Even drastically cutting down the number of shows he
participated in per month did not help. The stress on the bird was distinctly
and readily apparent. His eating habits were radically changed. He began to
attack his food and then disperse it all around the floor surrounding his cage.
He would eat a little and then throw it all up overnight. The parrot also began
to exhibit agitated behaviours every time he saw children approaching his cage.
He would fall off his perch to the bottom of the cage, his eyes would undergo
rapid `pinning' (quick expansion and contraction of the irises, often a sign of
stress in birds), and he would make alarm calls. When he was moved to a quieter
and less public place, he would still exhibit fear whenever he saw a staff
member, especially the one who was in charge of the zoomobile programme. In the
end, he began feather-plucking, a sign of an emotionally disturbed bird, and
was retired from the programme and the children's zoo in general. It is not
clear whether large parrots as a whole fare poorly when travelling, or if this
particular specimen was ill suited to the programme. However, small parakeets
such as cockatiels or lovebirds may be better suited and easier to use in a
travelling zoo programme. Birds provide an excellent opening to discussions
about the different types of skin that animals wear, the different habitats
that birds can be found in, and certain adaptations that birds have made over
time to adapt to their circumstances. One can also address the evils of the pet
trade, smuggling and endangerment of species, and the correlation between life
forms in an ecosystem.
Conclusions
It is demonstrable that a zoomobile
programme is both educational and entertaining and provides a much-needed
service to the community for the elderly, infirm and especially for children.
The needs of people, however, should not supersede the needs of the animals in
terms of their nutrition and stress while participating in such programmes.
Measures must be taken to ensure the health of the animals involved, and
attention must be paid to their mental states in all stages of travel and show.
Certain behaviours seemed to be reliable guides as to the stress levels of the
different species.
In conclusion, there are indeed some
species better suited to a travelling zoo programme than others. Furthermore,
there are individual specimens more amenable to this than others even within
the same taxa. The species used in the zoomobile programme of the Jerusalem
Biblical Zoo have been described, with discussion of the levels and signs of
stress in each case. Recommendations have also been made regarding their care
during travel and exhibition in order to reduce their stress levels. Also,
alternating between different individuals within the same species seems to
allow for rest and lowers the stress levels of the animals. Suggestions have
been made regarding frequency of use and care during transit for animals that
are less suited to this kind of programme. It is strongly suggested that they
be used sparingly to ensure their continued physical and mental health.
Different zoos may choose other
species of animals in their programmes. It is advisable that a similar type of
study be done on those species with regard to their stress levels.
As a final note, there is strong
evidence to support the statement that there is a need for this type of
programme in zoos. Though captive breeding of endangered species is an
important measure in the fight to save severely endangered species worldwide,
and zoos have stepped up and answered that need in force, working together on
species survival plans, research into what species need to reproduce and
survive, and in situ and ex situ conservation, there is an
important element missing. Although these are measures taken to fight mass
extinctions, little is being done to educate or train people not to perpetuate
the ecological disasters of the previous generation. By creating a bond with
animals they can touch, children are impressed at a young age with the need to
save and preserve the animals and plants with which we share the earth as our
home. Thus we create conservationists in kindergarten and first grade, instead
of in college and graduate school. This lesson goes home with the children, and
is spread to parents, grandparents and other family members as well.
The elderly also benefit from such
programmes, though not in the same way as children, for whom the focus is on
education and conservation. In shows for the elderly, the objective is much
simpler, though just as profound. The zoomobile provides these individuals with
`pet therapy'. They touch, hold and cuddle some very animated species,
appreciating the textures they are feeling. They listen to the sounds and see
the pictures of various exotic species, but the really meaningful part is the
live specimens. Though less an educational tool, in this instance the zoomobile
serves as a therapeutic vehicle, and provides a healthy dose of unconditional
love to the elderly and severely ill. Whether the point of conservation is
driven home is irrelevant when one sees the emotion and wonderment on the faces
of the seniors and the ill.
Animal preservation is a top
priority, but the ecological catastrophes of the future can be avoided through
the type of education zoomobiles offer. If we raise the consciousness of the
younger generation, we will reap the benefits in twenty years' time.
Legislation will be easier to pass, land will be easier to preserve, and
species will be easier to save.
The tools being used for this
important work should not suffer for the sake of their message. Proper care
when travelling with the zoomobile and early training are just two ways in
which to ensure the mental and physical health of the animals involved. The
message of conservation loses its meaning if the animals used to make the point
exhibit aberrant behaviours, or are malnourished. Though conservation education
is important, perhaps even more important is the concern for the welfare of the
spokesmen for the cause. Thus, proper care and observation by handlers and
keepers can create and ensure a smooth-running programme, with healthy and
happy individuals participating.
[This paper was read on 6 October
2003 as a presentation at the 1st International Congress on Zookeeping in
Alphen aan den Rijn, the Netherlands.]
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* * *
DORTMUND
ZOO – A PASSION FOR SOUTH AMERICA'S WILDLIFE
BY
FRANK BRANDSTÄTTER
When Dortmund Zoo, Germany, opened
its doors to the public for the very first time in the year 1953 it was a
small, `home-grown' animal park. Nobody would have expected it to become one of
the most successful and world-renowned institutions to breed South American animals.
Nevertheless, even on the first day the animal census of the park featured some
animals of South American origin. Amongst them were the coypu (Myocastor
coypus) and the Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera), which after
50 years are still to be seen in the zoo. Today, the animal collection counts
no less than 120 species of South American origin, making up about 45% of the
zoo's total collection (Table 1). The most popular amongst these is the giant
anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), the zoo's logo animal. No less than
45 anteaters have been bred at Dortmund so far, making it the number one
breeder of this species in the world.
When the zoo was opened 50 years
ago, the city of Dortmund was still recovering from the damage it suffered in
World War II. The city's government was unwilling to give its citizens the zoo
they wanted for their home town. Thus, it was up to the people themselves to
build the first enclosures in the south of Dortmund, directly adjacent to the
old botanical gardens. Set in a beautiful landscape, the young zoo developed
its unique character as an animal park (with emphasis on `park') from the very
beginning. The zoo's first director, Konrad Glocker, himself a garden designer,
emphasized the institution's foremost characteristic as a true garden.
His guidelines have always been followed, even in later years. The animal
enclosures have been adapted to the neighbouring landscape, and the form of the
park is still determined by its surroundings.
From the very beginning exotic
animals made up the major part of the zoo's collection. In 1955 two major new
attractions were added when the landmark enclosures for brown bears and
Californian sea lions were opened. Both enclosures are still in appropriate use
today. In keeping with the main theme of the zoo, the bear enclosure now houses
a group of spectacled bears and the sea lions share their enclosures with South
American fur seals, for which the zoo holds the European studbook. The
enclosures' appearance has never changed through all these years. Thanks to
young animal keeper Paul Andreae, who was later to become the director of the
neighbouring Osnabrück Zoo, a show featuring the feeding of the sea lions was
established from the beginning, and this is still one of the major attractions to
the public. And the successful breeding of the species was one of the major
achievements in the early days of Dortmund Zoo.
During Konrad Glocker's term as
director, the zoo soon became the number one family attraction for Sunday
outings. When Walter Simanowski followed him as director (1965 to 1974), the
zoo became a renowned scientific institution. Its characteristic enclosures
provided large amounts of space for the animals. During Simanowski's term
enclosures for African hoofed animals were added and the zoo grew to more than
twice its original size. A further new attraction was the Children's Petting
Zoo: the opportunity to touch and feed small domestic animals was an unusual
offer to the working-class people who still made up the major part of the city's
population. Today, the children's petting zoo is still a major attraction at
Dortmund Zoo. It is incorporated in the Farmyard Area, which has been designed
to house rare breeds of domestic animals. The architecture of the main building
is the same as is found in old Westphalian farmhouses. Thus, together with the
white goat, the typical domestic animal of the region between the two world
wars, the zoo is preserving not only part of our natural heritage but also some
of the cultural heritage of Germany.
Although the zoo has never changed
the structure of its historical parts, its present look clearly shows the
influence of the work of long-time director Dr Wolf Bartmann, who ran the zoo
from 1974 to 2000. With him, Dortmund's metamorphosis into an internationally
renowned modern zoo was completed. Dr Bartmann was responsible for bringing in
some of the zoo's most important and interesting animals. It was his devotion
that gave the zoo its expertise and reputation with giant anteaters in
particular, and also with the whole order of Xenarthra and the neotropical
fauna in general.
The zoo's first anteaters arrived in
1975. The first offspring was recorded in 1976, and from that time on the
breeding of the species has never stopped. Meanwhile, another anteater species,
the tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), is now also bred successfully on a
regular basis. The zoo holds the International Studbook and the EEP for the
giant anteater. Other South American species bred successfully (and most of
them regularly) include maned wolf, two-toed sloth, Brazilian tapir, hyacinth
macaw and southern pudu.
Wolf Bartmann imprinted his unique
touch on the zoo. All the major buildings in the zoo were designed and built
during his term, and blend perfectly into the surrounding landscape with its
lush vegetation. The famous Tamandua House is unique in the fact that it is
probably the only building in the world exclusively designed to house several
species of xenarthrans. The giraffe building houses the largest herd of Angolan
giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis) outside Africa. The Amazon
Jungle House, opened in 1992, gives a small-scale impression of the Amazon
river basin's ecosystem. Dispersed on three floors, the house shows
free-ranging birds, mammals and reptiles, with aquaria holding fish from the
Amazon system as well as frogs, snakes, crocodiles, monkeys and spiders in
specially designed enclosures. The last building opened at the zoo to date was
the Giant Otter House (1998). The giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis)
will be one of the zoo's focus animals in the future. Strong efforts have been
made to form a breeding group of this rare species, but further work will be
needed to achieve this difficult goal.
When Wolf Bartmann retired in 2000
due to a severe health condition, long-time assistant Ilona Schappert took over
as interim director. With her and the new director, Dr Frank Brandstätter, who
began his term in 2001, the zoo leaped into the new millennium. A plan was set
up which stressed the historical rule of keeping the zoo's essential
`park-like' character. The future characteristics of the animal collection have
been determined by three `golden rules':
1.Continuing to specialize in South American
animals;
2.Focusing on conservation, i.e. keeping as
many animals as possible within the framework of international breeding
programmes and initiating in situ projects;
3.Focusing on education and keeping animals
with a strong educational, sympathetic and conservational status.
Thus, the zoo clearly supports the
World Zoo Conservation Strategy and is determined to improve the animals'
enclosures. Apart from developing a new presentation scheme for focus animals
such as the xenarthrans and the giant otters, there are two major projects for
the near future:
1.The building of the new Rainforest House
`Rumah Hutan', originally designed as a new enclosure for the zoo's Sumatran
orang-utans (Pongo abeli), who are going to share their enclosure with
Malayan tapirs in this unique building dedicated to the jungles of South-East
Asia. The building itself is a true counterpart to the above-mentioned Amazon
Jungle House, stressing the biogeographical sisterhood of these two ecosystems
as well as the present critical situation of both of them.
2.The building of new enclosures for the zoo's
rhinos (currently Diceros bicornis). The `Rhino Park' is going to be one
of the centrepoints in the future zoo.
Dortmund Zoo has always been aware
of the needs of its animals; but it is still improving, and will continue to be
one of the most important institutions in the cultural life of the city of
Dortmund.
Dr
Frank Brandstätter, Zoo Dortmund, Mergelteichstrasse 80, 44225 Dortmund,
Germany (E-mail: f.brandstaetter@stadtdo.de).
Table
1. South American mammals and birds in the collection of Dortmund Zoo.
Mammals
Aotus trivirgatus Owl
Monkey
Pithecia pithecia pithecia White‑faced
Saki
Saimiri sciureus sciureus Common
Squirrel Monkey
Callimico goeldii Goeldi's
Monkey
Cebuella pygmaea Pygmy
Marmoset
Saguinus oedipus Cotton‑top
Tamarin
Myrmecophaga tridactyla Giant
Anteater
Tamandua tetradactyla Tamandua
Choloepus didactylus Two‑toed
Sloth
Chaetophractus villosus Brown
Hairy Armadillo
Dasypus novemcinctus Nine‑banded
Armadillo
Cavia aperea Wild
Cavy
Dolichotis patagona Mara
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Capybara
Dasyprocta leporina Orange‑rumped
Agouti
Myoprocta pratti Acouchi
Myocastor coypus Coypu
Chrysocyon brachyurus Maned
Wolf
Speothos venaticus Bush
Dog
Tremarctos ornatus Spectacled
Bear
Nasua nasua Coati
Procyon cancrivorus Crab‑eating Raccoon
Pteronura brasiliensis Giant
Otter
Felis pardalis Ocelot
Felis tigrinus Oncilla
Felis wiedii Margay
Felis yagouaroundi Jaguarundi
Panthera onca Jaguar
Arctocephalus australis South
American Fur Seal
Tapirus terrestris Brazilian
Tapir
Tayassi tajacu Peccary
Lama guanicoe Guanaco
Vicugna vicugna Vicugna
Pudu pudu Southern
Pudu
Birds
Pterocnemia pennata Darwin's
Rhea
Rhea americana Common
Rhea
Spheniscus humboldti Humboldt's
Penguin
Phoenicopterus chilensis Chilean
Flamingo
Phoenicopterus ruber American
Flamingo
Chauna torquata Crested
Screamer
Coscoroba coscoroba Coscoroba
Swan
Cygnus melancoryphus Black‑necked
Swan
Amazonetta brasiliensis Brazilian
Teal
Callonetta leucophrys Ringed
Teal
Chloephaga melanoptera Andean
Goose
Cathartes aura Turkey
Vulture
Coragyps atratus Black
Vulture
Sarcoramphus papa King
Vulture
Vultur gryphus Andean
Condor
Phalcoboenus megalopterus Mountain
Caracara
Polyborus plancus Crested
Caracara
Crax rubra rubra Mexican
Curassow
Jacana jacana Central
American Jacana
Cariama cristata Red-legged
Seriema
Amazona autumnalis lilacina Lilacine
Amazon
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus Hyacinth
Macaw
Ara macao Scarlet
Macaw
Ara militaris Military
Macaw
Ara rubrogenys Red‑fronted
Macaw
Aratinga acuticaudata Blue‑crowned
Conure
Cyanoliseus patagonus Patagonian
Conure
Myiopsitta monachus Monk
Parakeet
Guira guira Guira
Cuckoo
Speotyto cunicularia Burrowing
Owl
Strix perspicillata Spectacled
Owl
Pitangus lictor Lesser
Kiskadee
Sicalis flaveola Saffron
Finch
Amblyramphus holosericeus Scarlet‑headed
Blackbird
Gymnomystax mexicanus Oriole
Blackbird
* * *
THE SENSE AND NONSENSE OF THE
WALK-THROUGH: AMERSFOORT ZOO'S NEW NOCTURNAL EXHIBIT
BY
ERIK VAN VLIET
In efforts to bring zoo visitors as
close as possible to animals, the last barriers seem to have been eliminated by
the development of walk-through exhibits. In whatever form they arise,
walk-throughs are alluring and exciting experiences – often, though, slightly
appealing to a desire for sensation. The balance between a genuine free
wildlife experience and a cheap tourist trap is fragile. At Amersfoort Zoo, the
Netherlands, we recently opened De Nacht (The Night), a walk-through nocturnal
exhibit, my reason for an analysis of the walk-through phenomenon.
Nothing
new
The walk-through idea is by no means
new. Assyrian and Persian monarchs sometimes housed their animal collections in
settings probably more reminiscent of safari parks than of zoological gardens.
Some wealthy Romans designed dining rooms incorporated within aviaries, rather
as zoos tend to situate catering outlets and terraces within tropical settings
with free-flying birds.
In modern zoos, too, birds were
among the first animals to be exhibited in walk-through exhibits. In the 1960s,
though, more spectacular scenes arose. The first lion drive-through opened in
1963 in Tama Zoological Park in Tokyo. In double-glazed buses, visitors made a
tour through a one-hectare enclosure with twelve lions. The `own car' variation
of the lion park caused a sensation when it spread from Britain to the European
continent and the rest of the world and led to the safari boom that disrupted
the zoo community so vigorously. Walk-throughs with reptiles, Barbary apes,
South American monkeys and various species of rodents, marsupials and smaller
ungulates followed. Today, walk-throughs with lemurs of various kinds are
popping up all over Europe. The next steps underway include wade-through and
swim-through marine mammal and fish displays; and at Amersfoort Zoo the idea
arose of creating a walk-through nocturnal rain forest.
The
sensation factor
But why? Wouldn't a nocturnal
walk-through merely represent a wish to provoke the pointless excitement of
meeting quasi-free, spooky living animals in the – likewise sensational –
creepy dark? And why should one want to have a walk-through anyway?
It might seem that the removal of
the final barrier does not contribute to anything else but a sensationalist
thrill. Landscape immersion techniques can make the illusion of free-living
animals so convincing that one does not need the animal to really cross the
visitor's path, with all the risks and extra costs involved. The true appeal of
many walk- and drive-through exhibits is the chance (or the fear, so dearly
missed in daily life) of physical contact with animals. The squirrel monkey or
ring-tailed lemur on one's shoulder is the number one photo trophy of the
primate walk-through. But in a well-managed primate section the keeper is
present to prevent any more intimate contact than that. The thrilling fear that
the car's engine might break down causes an improbably high number of safari
visitors with engine problems in the middle of lion sections in safari parks
all over Europe. And a bird is more of a bird when it can shit on your head!
An understandable disappointment,
though, arises when a child is not allowed to fulfil the ultimate desire to
hold, cuddle, stroke or even just feel the soft fur of a monkey or other
walk-through inmate. So though the last barrier has been levelled, the visitor
is still not allowed to really cross it. A sensible child understands. But a
don't-touch-walk-through still feels a bit like making love without climaxing.
If a walk-through consists of the same old non-walk-through structures, a
little bit bigger perhaps, where the animals can be seen immediately upon
entering, it really seems no more than a cheap suggestion of an unfulfilled
childhood dream.
The
authentic shivering
Where a walk-through approach really
makes the difference is when one does not see any animals at first sight.
Nature dominates on both sides of the trail and one does not know where to
look. And then all of sudden something moves in the foliage. If the visitor's
natural hunting instincts are intact and he is silent, does not move and has
patience, he catches more than a glimpse. The credible nature experience is the
attraction. Spotting the animal is the bonus. The challenge is to make sure
that you are the one in the family who saw it first. It is a context that
really does generate an authentic shivering comparable with that of spotting
wildlife in nature.
The
nocturnal walk-through
With all this in mind, we decided to
revitalize the once exiting, now seemingly disappearing, nocturnal exhibit concept
in a new form. To recreate a nocturnal rain forest in a walk-through approach
with the described surprise elements as vital ingredients seemed relatively
easy. It is dark at night, after all, and the visitor's sight only reaches the
walls of the building, which we covered with tree trunks. Between these
covering trunks and the visitor so many other trunks are positioned that a
credible forest feeling has been created. Above one's head it is dark, so one
does not see the ceiling and the fact that the forest consists merely of
trunks, not of whole trees. Humidity, noises and the splashing of the river
complete the required atmosphere. The total area is only 600 m2, but
because of the darkness and the winding trails and river boardwalks, visitors
experience the space as a lot bigger. The presence of live plants and rotting
tree trunks prevents the sterile atmosphere of many old-fashioned nocturnal
houses.
In the African section one can have
encounters with giant galagos (Otolemur crassicaudatus), brush-tailed
porcupines (Atherurus africanus) and giant jumping rats (Hypogeomys
antimena). Australia features short-nosed rat-kangaroos (Bettongia
penicillata ogilbyi) and brush-tailed possums (Trichosurus vulpecula),
and the South American section houses douroucoulis (Aotus lemurinus) and
golden-rumped agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina). In the first week after the
opening on 26 June, only the two marsupial species were regularly and easily
seen. The possums, in particular, have an underestimated charismatic appeal comparable
with that of their so much less active cousin the koala. Possums and rat
kangaroos do not move when approached. For the two primate species it took a
bit longer.
Magic
moments
In the mean time we went ahead with
a scheme of guided experience. Two systems are applied, depending on the
expected attendance volume. Normally the guest ventures into The Night
individually, with guides available for questions and to get the guests into
the right mood. The guides are either keepers, members of our volunteer
story-telling team, or have an entertainment background. They all know where
animals can be expected.
On the quiet days visitors wait in
the pre-show which reflects the ambience of an African village, with a yard
holding yellow mongooses. At least every fifteen minutes a night safari is
offered for groups of about fifteen members of the public.
In both systems guides, equipped
with a sense for story-telling and drama, generate unforgettable experiences.
Whole families kneel down on the floor of the Australian rainforest, every
nerve strained to be ready for the magic moment to see if the rat kangaroo does
or does not jump out of the bush onto the path. In most cases, the rat kangaroo
does. . .
Erik van Vliet, Beethovenweg 8C,
3816 MC Amersfoort, The Netherlands (E-mail: erik.vanvliet@wxs.nl).
* * *
LETTERS
TO THE EDITOR
Dear Sir,
In your editorial in IZN 50
(5) you forgot to mention Antwerp Zoo, Belgium, which always had a close
connection with the arts world. In 1993, at the celebrations for its 150 years
in existence, the zoo opened a permanent exhibition of world-class sculpture,
all animal-related. That idea was later taken over by Berlin Zoo for its own
150th anniversary celebrations the following year. Theirs was an exhibition of
white porcelain figures, and catalogues have been published, including a
catalogue of the most famous posters of the zoo's 150-year history. Several of
them were from famous artists.
Antwerp Zoo has always had a close
relationship with the Royal Academy in the city, and allowed and encouraged
students and teachers to look for their life models in the zoo grounds. It has
also always published reports on its art collection in special publications
from the series Pro Natura et Scientia. I remember, among others, a complete
inventory of art works in 1975, a special Bugatti issue, and issues about
graphic art in 1972 and 1977.
I am sure that you will find more
`old' zoos with a similar combination of interests. It is a pity that with
modern-style management and restricted budgets, a return to the core activities
is promoted, forgetting the long artistic and cultural history of the place.
Regards,
Paul Vercammen,
Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
Dear Sir,
Regarding your comments on art in
zoo publications (Editorial, IZN 50:5), I would mention that the covers
of Animal Keepers' Forum (the journal of the American Association of
Animal Keepers) always feature an animal drawn by a keeper. There is always a
`blurb' inside about the artist and the animal. A very nice, and personal,
feature. And there are some very good keeper-artists out there!
Another aspect of Germany's
zoo/art/society angle is the prolific use of special postmarks to commemorate
zoo anniversaries and activities. Germany has probably issued more zoo-related stamps
than any other country, and the number of special postmarks is beyond
comprehension (or anyone's ability to collect them all). Their zoo journals
often feature articles on these stamp issues and postmarks as well. Other
countries have issued zoo stamps, though in far fewer numbers, but the U.S.
never has. Occasionally there is a special postmark issued here, but ours are
not noted and publicized like they are in Germany.
Sincerely,
Vernon Kisling,
CM Selector – History of Science,
Environmental Sciences, Life Sciences,
Marston Science Library,
POB 117011,
University of Florida,
Gainesville,
Florida 32611–7011,
U.S.A.
(vkisling@mail.uflib.ufl.edu)
[My editorial could indeed have
included many more instances of `zoo art'. It was very remiss of me, for example,
to omit any reference to the covers of Animal Keepers' Forum, which I
see and enjoy every month. And I don't know how I forgot to mention the
sculptures and paintings commissioned by John Aspinall and now on show to
visitors at Howletts and, especially, Port Lympne. – Nicholas Gould.]
* * *
BOOK
REVIEW
CHASING THE PANDA: HOW AN UNLIKELY
PAIR OF ADVENTURERS WON THE RACE TO CAPTURE THE MYTHICAL `WHITE BEAR' by M.
Kiefer. Four Walls Eight Windows, New York, 2002. v + 230 pp., hardback. ISBN
1–56858–223–4. US$24.95 (= c. £15 or #22).
Zoo history is also the history of
individual animals and the people involved with them. The giant panda is such a
rare animal in zoological gardens that all are individually known by name.
Thanks to the media many people all over the world became familiar with Chi-Chi
and An-An in the late 1960s. It is also common knowledge (or is it? Hopefully
it is in zoo circles) that Su-Lin was the first-ever giant panda in captivity
(Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, 8.II.1937 to 1.IV.1938). The names of the people
connected with the species have earned their place in history and should be
familiar to most insiders: Père David, Kermit and Theodore Roosevelt, Ruth
Harkness, Dwight Davis, Heini Demmer, Desmond Morris, George Schaller, to name
only the most important players in the field.
The first live giant panda to reach
a zoo in the western hemisphere was caught and delivered by a determined but
naive American woman, Ruth McCombs, whose exploits have been published by
herself and referred to by many others. She had no other connections in the
animal trade than having been married to William Harkness, who had some
experience in the field but promptly died after a marriage of less than 18
months, for most of which he was away in China. Her book subsequently kindled a
lot of controversy and Michael Kiefer, an Arizona journalist and author, has
tried to reconstruct events and put things in their proper perspective by
tracing the persons involved and delving into the archives of various institutions.
He has been remarkably successful in this, as he was able to trace some of the
actors in person and also to contact surviving family members: the book has
been in the making for more than ten years and most of the interviewees are now
deceased.
Ruth Harkness is vindicated, but
Kiefer makes it very clear that she could never have achieved what she did
without the indispensable assistance of two young Chinese-American naturalists,
Quentin Young and (to a lesser extent) his older brother Jack Young. The latter
retired and died as a full colonel in the U.S. army, but Quentin still lives in
somewhat straitened circumstances in southern California. He led an adventurous
life, well worth reading about, through tumultuous times (including a
succession of wars) in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, the Dutch East
Indies/Indonesia and the U.S.A.. As Kiefer rightly concludes, Chasing the
Panda is not a book about pandas but about early panda hunters. The story
is well written and the illustrations are most interesting. The only flaw in
this entertaining book is the reproduction of the rare photos, which certainly
deserve a better quality of paper.
A.C.
van Bruggen
* * *
ANNUAL
REPORTS
BERLIN ZOO AND TIERPARK BERLIN-FRIEDRICHSFELDE,
GERMANY, 2001–2002
There have been some important
developments at the two zoos of Berlin and the Aquarium im Zoo during the
period 2001/2002. Despite Bernhard Blaszkiewitz's regular reports about
Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde in IZN and some journals in Germany, and
the annual reports of both collections, many readers may be interested to get
some more information on these important zoological gardens.
First of all, Dr Hans Frädrich,
director of Berlin Zoo, retired at his 65th birthday on 5 July 2002. Hans
Frädrich worked at the zoo for about 36 years, the last eleven years as
director. During this time he not only initiated many small changes which made
the zoo much more interesting and comfortable for visitors, but also developed
and opened two important new buildings, the hippo house and the penguin house,
the latter together with a large new pool for sea lions. Dr Frädrich is
followed as director by Dr Jürgen Lange, for nearly 25 years curator and
director of the Aquarium im Zoo.
All three institutions have seen
many highlights during the two years. You can find details in the annual
reports of the Tierpark and the Zoo, both written in German, with a short
English summary in the annual report of the Tierpark and a two-page English
summary in Berlin Zoo's annual journal Bongo.
Animal
collection
Heaviest of all births were the two
elephants at Tierpark Berlin. The third African elephant in the Tierpark's
history was born on 4 May 2001, a female named Tana. Her mother is 20-year-old
Pori, who successfully reared this, her first offspring. On 2 November 2001 the
Asian elephant Kewa gave birth to a female named Temi. This was her second
calf, but sadly the first one, in 1998, was stillborn. Births to some other
large mammals have been less successful. A manatee gave birth to twins in 2001,
but one was stillborn and the other lived only one day. The Indian rhinoceros
Betty had her first calf, but unfortunately it had to be euthanased as it had a
broken limb and broken ribs, presumably from an accident with its mother during
the night. Indian rhinos are kept in both zoos, so difficulties with the
incompatibility of animals can be solved by an exchange between the two zoos.
Hopes are that in the near future two more Indian rhinos will be born in
Berlin. The black rhinos at the zoo only had a miscarriage in 2001, but the
male paired with all the females and there are good hopes of some young in
2003. The old male white rhino Hlambamans died in 2002 at the age of 42. He
arrived at the zoo in 1964 together with a female, the first of their species
in a German zoo, but unfortunately never bred.
At the Zoo the most important birth
was a female okapi, Ibina, who was successfully reared by her mother Vita. It
was the first rearing of an okapi at Berlin Zoo. The nearest relatives of the
okapi, giraffes, bred in both collections – a male reticulated giraffe was
reared at the Zoo in 2001, and the Rothschild's giraffes at the Tierpark had
two young in 2002. Other ungulates bred as well as ever in both years and both
zoos: worth mentioning are Mesopotamian fallow deer, Vietnamese sika, Timor
deer and white-lipped deer at the Tierpark and musk deer, pudu and Philippine
spotted deer at the Zoo. The latter species reared 2.2 young in 2001 and a
further 2.0 in 2002. With the import of some new animals to Europe in 2002
there is a good chance of the survival of this species in European zoos.
Altogether 23 species of antelope bred, among them 3.0 red forest duiker, 1.2
bongo, 4.2 Kirk's dikdik and 0.1 dama gazelle at the Zoo and 2.6 mountain
reedbuck, 3.5 Arabian oryx and 0.3 mhorr gazelle at the Tierpark. Himalayan
tahr bred well at the Zoo with four young, as did markhor, Cretan wild goat,
Afghanistan urial, goral, blue sheep, musk ox and Mishmi takin at the Tierpark.
The Szechuan takin had their first young, but it was a stillbirth and had to be
delivered by caesarean operation; we hope that in the coming years this pair
will have some more offspring. Perissodactyls bred well in both collections,
with Grevy's zebra, Hartmann's mountain zebra, Somali wild ass and eastern
kiang, to mention only the most important.
Both zoos have a large collection of
carnivores, and breeding results are as good as ever. The greatest interest
among scientists, the zoo world and the general public was focused on the
breeding efforts of Yan Yan and Bao Bao, the giant pandas at Berlin Zoo. As in
previous years, the veterinarians tried artificial insemination of Yan Yan, but
unfortunately without success. She will stay at the zoo for some years more:
her visit was originally scheduled to end in 2001, but the Chinese government
has agreed that she can stay in Berlin for a further five years. This time will
be used to impregnate her by either artificial or natural insemination. Both
pandas are now in different parts of the carnivore house, Yan Yan in the old
panda enclosures which have been remodelled and made more appropriate to the
species' life-style, and Bao Bao in the former tiger enclosure, where he can
walk amid the natural vegetation of birch and poplar with undergrowth. Here he not
only seems to lead a natural and happy life but also gives the public a much
better impression of where and how pandas live.
Other notable carnivores which bred
successfully were the two species of Malagasy mongoose at the Zoo, sand cats,
Pallas's cats, Gordon's wild cats and snow leopards. A new pair of maned wolves
bred for the first time and reared their two offspring successful at the
Tierpark, as did the African hunting dogs with their 3.5 young at the Zoo.
Spectacled bears had two cubs at the Tierpark, and sloth bears two cubs at the
Zoo.
Primates were successful, with 27
breeding species. Only the Zoo has apes, and there were some interesting
changes. Two animals died of old age, chimpanzee Sam, who was born at the zoo
in 1952 and died in 2001, and Sumatran orang-utan Babu, who arrived as an adult
in 1962 and died in 2002 – so she was more than 50 years old. She reared three
sons, one of whom is still breeding (at Hagenbeck's Tierpark in Hamburg).
Another death was that of the female gorilla Dufte, who was the first gorilla
born at Berlin Zoo. She was well known far beyond Berlin, as when she and her
daughter Mpenzi gave birth within a fortnight of each other, Mpenzi rejected
her baby but Dufte adopted it and reared both infants together. A famous scene
on German TV showed her walking upright with the two babies sitting on her
belly.
Altogether over this two-year period
the two zoos bred 172 species of wild mammal, including 41 species of rodent, a
speciality of Tierpark Berlin.
Birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish
bred well too, most notably the birds with 175 wild species reared. Berlin
Zoo's kiwis had two unfertilized eggs in 2002. After a long break, it was the
beginning of further breeding success with this species, for in 2003 two kiwis
hatched. To mention only a few others, black-footed penguins bred at both
collections, and Humboldt's penguins at the Tierpark. Four species of pelican
bred. The Tierpark is a well-known breeder of pelicans and reared 11 specimens
of three species. Berlin Zoo was the first in Germany to successfully breed
pelicans in 1964; on that occasion this took place in the summer. But after
1967 the colony stopped breeding for a long time; they only started again in
2002, this time during the winter as is usual in most zoos in Europe. Two
species hatched, two Dalmatian pelicans and three pink-backed pelicans. The
flamingos did very well too. In the Tierpark's colony 23 chicks hatched, 14 of
which were Cuban flamingos. At the Zoo an Andean and a James's flamingo were
reared in 2001. Both species are very rare in captivity and have only small
colonies in the wild. Berlin is one of the very few zoos which keep and breed
these two species of the Andean highlands. The first success was as early as
1976, and since then these species have bred more or less regularly.
Besides demoiselle and red-crowned
cranes, the Tierpark bred its first Siberian white crane by artificial
insemination; the chick was reared by a turkey. Important parrot breeding
successes included military and hyacinth macaws at the Tierpark, Mexican
military macaw at both zoos, and Illiger's macaw and red-tailed black cockatoo
at the Zoo. The latter had to be hand-reared as the parents bred in an outside
aviary in October, and a sudden period of cold weather was too dangerous for
the birds.
Verreaux's eagles had fertilized
eggs, but the young died during hatching in March 2001 at the Tierpark. A new
bird of prey at the Tierpark is the lesser yellow-headed vulture (Cathartes
burrovianus), a species similar to the turkey vulture but much less
frequently kept in zoos. Nuremberg Zoo recently bred Steller's sea eagle for
the first time in Germany, and the young, who hatched in April 2001, arrived at
the Tierpark in October of the same year.
Hornbills bred only at the Tierpark,
where the eastern yellow-billed hornbills had ten young in four clutches during
the two years.
Building
and development
The most expensive and complex
development is the new area for penguins and seals at Berlin Zoo. The old seal
cliffs which were erected by Ludwig Heck in 1932 were reconstructed and
renovated. The two small pools planned in 1932 for otters and elephant seals
were joined and enlarged. Now they are a home for the breeding group of harbour
seals. The former pool for this species on the north side of the seal rock was
enlarged to a small `ocean' with 730,000 litres of water. Its cliffs are built
of natural rock. The visitor can see sea lions from different perspectives,
walking on the old high passage about the seal rock, at sea-level and under
water. On the eastern side there is a small enclosure for a small species of
otters. But most impressive and most expensive is the house for penguins. In
large outside enclosures live breeding groups of black-footed and Humboldt's
penguins. Both enclosures also have underwater viewing. As both species live
naturally in temperate climates, they can stay outside all year round without
problems. Only in winter when the temperature falls far below zero – in Berlin
it sometimes drops to minus 20°C – will they be protected against
the frost. When the visitor passes through the doors into the round building,
which is covered with plants growing in soil, he steps into the world of
Antarctica. As in other modern penguin houses, he looks into an Antarctic landscape
with waterfall, ice and rocks. In this landscape live the breeding colony of
king penguins and a small group of rockhoppers which some years ago bred
regularly. Divided from the public by big glass panels, the penguins have a
large area for walking and a very large pool of 240,000 litres. The visitors'
route is alongside this pool, and they can see the penguins swimming under
water through the glass. Educational and interactive materials give the public
a lot of information on penguins and their environment.
The historic Aquarium at the Zoo was
enlarged in 1980. The new building east of the old part contained five
landscaped enclosures. There were also a further large tank for sharks and a
round pool in which visitors could see fish swimming around almost endlessly in
the same direction. After the enlargement of the shark tank, the round pool was
rebuilt in 2001. It was extended to the wall and the water level was raised,
doubling the volume of water. After the enlargement of the pool in the first of
the landscape enclosures, the others were remodelled in 2002. The large planted
part of the enclosures was reduced and the water areas nearly doubled in size.
In this part of the aquarium the visitor travels from the rivers of southern
Asia and South America respectively to the coast, the coral reefs and lastly to
the open sea. The new size and decoration of the aquaria was not possible
without enormous changes behind the scenes, both in building and technology.
When the Tierpark opened its house
for African monkeys on 21 December 2000 the outside enclosures were not
finished. They were opened on 12 April 2001, and the large groups of such
monkeys as geladas, mangabeys and patas monkeys now have spacious room to move.
The enclosures are planted with natural vegetation and have trees and branches
for climbing. Trunks or rocks are used as sitting posts.
Another important development was
the opening of the new breeding aviaries for birds of prey. Where the former Greifvogelring
was sited, six new aviaries each with an area of 100 m2 and a height
of 5.5 m were erected. They replace the former collection of much smaller
aviaries in which some very rare breedings of birds of prey took place. A small
house with three aviaries for tropical owls is also part of the new complex.
The total costs of #900.000 were contributed by the public.
In 2002 the Tierpark made an
important step forward. At the eastern side of the grounds was a rubble slope,
called the Kippe [`edge']. This large area of some 25 ha had long
belonged to the Tierpark but was unused except for a big enclosure for the
second group of white-lipped deer. On 25 November 2002 director Bernhard
Blaszkiewitz opened the first six-hectare section of a new development here.
Six new large enclosures for ungulates of the Asian highlands, a 700-m2
aviary for a pair of Steller's sea eagles and a large enclosure for Eurasian
lynx form the Asian part of the Kippe. Only one new species, the lynx, is kept
here – the others, such as the breeding groups of Afghanistan urial, blue sheep
and goral, have been in the Tierpark for a long time. In the former enclosures
of these species now live breeding pairs of cranes. The second part of the
Kippe, the European Alps, will be opened in 2003. Another project was financed
partially by the Förderer des Tierparks [`Sponsors of the Tierpark'].
The winter house for pelicans makes it possible for visitors to see these
marvellous birds all the year round: until now the whole breeding group spent
the winter in the off-exhibit breeding centre. Now the birds which are too
young or too old, or will not breed for any other reason, live in the new
house, making the breeding space for the other birds more comfortable and
allowing the public to see pelicans in winter too.
Conservation
Both zoos and the Aquarium are
engaged in many conservation activities at home and abroad. They participate in
many breeding programmes, and the Zoo and Tierpark are holders of,
respectively, three and four international studbooks. The gaur and white and
black rhinoceros studbooks were published at the end of 2001, the studbooks of
Asian wild ass, African wild ass, Mesopotamian fallow deer and Vietnamese sika
deer are published annually. Besides this intensive work they participate in
many EEPs and ESBs. Many of the breeding programmes mean that the collection
involved has to support in situ conservation in the homelands of the
respective species. The zoos gave money to the okapi project in Congo, to the
spotted deer project in the Philippines, to the re-establishment of waldrapp in
Morocco and to the support of giant pandas in China. At home both zoos were
engaged in the Unteres Odertal National Park, a large protected area on the
border between Germany and Poland. Other projects which got financial support
were those for riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis) in South Africa
and cloud rats in the Philippines.
Science
and publications
Research in both zoos and the
aquarium was not only done by the scientists and curators working there. Most
research is done by students and teachers of the universities of Berlin and
Potsdam, but also of other universities. The zoo published two issues of its
journal Bongo, containing the annual reports of the respective years and
scientific and popular papers. The Tierpark published four issues of its
journal Milu, completing the tenth volume in 2002. Altogether more than
250 papers dealing with the collections were published by members of the staff
or friends and colleagues of the zoos and aquarium. Members of staff also
belong to the editorial boards of some important scientific or avicultural
journals like Der Zoologische Garten and Die Gefiederte Welt.
Visitors
Numbers of visitors are
traditionally high at the Berlin collections. More than 1,068,000 people in
2001 and more than 1,112,000 in 2002 visited the Tierpark. Approximate figures
for the Zoo and Aquarium were 1,602,000 and 938,000 (2001) and 1,686,000 and
969,000 (2002). For many years visitor numbers have remained nearly stable,
showing the high importance of the zoos and the aquarium for the recreation and
education of the people.
The
future
The Zoo and the Aquarium completed
some very expensive and important projects during these two years. Intensive
discussion of coming developments will bring further changes, with new and
modernized buildings. At the Tierpark the development of the Kippe will be the
focus of all activities for the coming years. Besides this, some minor projects
will be funded by the Förderer des Tierparks and by the public, such as the
breeding centre for small cat species near the Alfred Brehm-Haus. The number of
species will remain stable in the collections, making Berlin a place of
pilgrimage for all enthusiasts for biodiversity.
Harro
Strehlow
DENVER
ZOO, COLORADO, U.S.A.
Extracts
from the 2002 Annual Report
Primate
Division (by
John Wortman)
Congo Basin, a $3.3 million
construction project that eventually covered a little over an acre [0.4 ha] of
the 7.2-acre [2.9-ha] Primate Panorama, officially opened on 1 August. This
series of exhibits, support facilities, and interpretive displays consists of
three outdoor stainless steel mesh enclosures, two fronted by glass viewing
ports from a public viewing vestibule, and a non-public animal holding
building. Species housed at Congo Basin are mandrill, De Brazza's monkey, blue
duiker and silvery-cheeked hornbill. A highlight of the new area is the
mandrill display, which features a precocious female baby, the first
reproduction of this rare primate at Denver in more than 15 years.
The colobus monkey display became
another mixed-species enclosure with the addition of a pair of klipspringers (Oreotragus
oreotragus); a small barn, an off-exhibit holding yard and a ramp connected
to the public display were constructed to provide the young antelopes housing
and access to the colobus enclosure. They can be frequently observed zipping
around the enclosure and bounding straight up the rocks to stand right beside a
resting colobus monkey.
African cultural displays were added
to the Shamba section of Primate Panorama, with a section of the public patio
area developed to illustrate a typical wood carver's hut and outdoor work area.
A sound system was added to depict typical village sounds and African bird
songs. An outdoor raised platform for keepers to toss food to our lowland
gorillas was installed. This encourages the gorillas to be out and visible in
their yard during late morning hours, ensuring the animals' presence at the
time of the morning educational tours.
For the fifth year in a row, a pair
of free-ranging, radio-collared golden lion tamarins lived outdoors in Primate
Panorama's trees for the summer. Our volunteers furnished information about
primate conservation and behavior to thousands of zoo visitors who stopped to
observe these colorful monkeys bouncing around their summer habitat.
Large
Mammal Division (by
Dale Leeds)
A highlight of 2002 was the
acquisition of a pair of young grizzly bears. As the result of a cooperative
effort between the zoo and state and federal agencies, Kootenai, a male
orphaned in Montana, arrived in Denver in June. We wanted a companion for him,
and while we certainly did not wish for another tragedy in the wild, we found
another orphaned cub in Alaska. The female, Tundra, arrived at the zoo in
August. After a quarantine period and some exhibit renovation, the two young
grizzlies were moved to Bear Mountain where they have proven to be a very
popular feature. These bears would not have survived unless a suitable zoo home
was located. We were very pleased to aid in their rescue and provide them with
a permanent home.
Another important event was the
birth of our first litter of African wild dog puppies following the 2001
importation of a trio of young adults from South Africa. We are happy to report
that a litter of seven (2.5) was born in February 2002 and successfully
parent-raised without incident. We were proud to have been able to reproduce
this endangered species so soon after their arrival. Our long-term plans for
working with this species include an advanced operant conditioning program to
enhance a major new exhibit for these unique canines.
Bird
Division (by
John Azúa)
A Herculean effort was put forth by
all staff members to develop `Lorikeet Adventure', a new interactive bird
exhibit that was open to the public throughout the summer season. Red,
violet-necked, blue-streaked, dusky, ornate and rainbow lories made up the
group of 35 free-flying birds available for public feedings and up-close
observations by our visitors. Total seasonal attendance was 103,000, with 14,948
nectar cups sold for the public feedings. Due to the exhibit's popularity, 25
more rainbow lories were acquired in the latter part of the year to increase
flock size and prepare for a festive season in 2003.
There were several additions to the
rainforest room in Bird World. A female victoria crowned pigeon, a wonderful
species with its uniquely ornate headdress, was introduced to the exhibit and
has become a real crowd-pleaser. Three woolly-necked storks and four waldrapp
ibis were also added and can be seen high in the trees and on cliff ledges.
Other species acquired were pairs of Inca terns, blue-bellied rollers,
magnificent fruit doves, and gaudy barbets, as well as flocks of Pekin robins
and golden-breasted starlings. The latter group is a wonderful sight during the
daily `Bug Tosses' offered to zoo visitors by the keepers. In addition, the
Avian Propagation Center received several new birds for intensified efforts in
captive breeding. Pairs of lesser green broadbills, Jambu fruit doves,
turquoise tanagers, blue dacnis and fairy bluebirds were acquired and
established at the center.
Several species successfully
reproduced. The Chilean flamingo flock produced a total of 44 eggs in 2002, a
record number. Eight chicks were hatched after being artificially incubated,
with a total of five successfully parent-reared and weaned. This is a record
for the zoo. In addition, a pair of Egyptian plovers parent-raised one female
chick; this is the second successful breeding of this pair in the past three
years and represents the only breeding program for this species in the U.S. Our
staff were called upon for their incubation expertise when the Cheyenne
Mountain Zoo transferred a fertile cinereous vulture egg to us for artificial
incubation. A chick was successfully hatched after approximately 53 days and
then returned to Colorado Springs to be placed back under the parents for
rearing. A spangled cotinga pair hatched a chick, but unfortunately it only
survived for 36 days. A pair of fairy bluebirds successfully hatched and reared
a chick at the Propagation Center. In addition, smew, red-crested pochards,
Bahama pintails and hooded mergansers were successfully reared.
Reptiles/Fishes
Division (by
Rick Haeffner)
Tropical Discovery's year ended with
an exciting event, the hatching of two Komodo dragons. On 1 November, during a
routine incubator check, zookeeper Tim Trout found that two baby dragons had
hatched. We had all expected at least another three weeks of incubation before
seriously anticipating hatching, but Ramah and Satu slit their eggs and emerged
overnight to our pleasant surprise on day 222. Though all the baby dragons
hatched in U.S. institutions had previously been raised alone, we decided that
we would make every attempt to raise these two together. At first there was
some aggression, and a few small bites that required a couple of stitches, but
within a week they were completely compatible, and continue to live together in
the nursery of the Komodo dragon building.
Tom Weaver, our newest zookeeper,
was successful in the breeding of smoky jungle frogs (Leptodactylus
pentadactylus). This species, the second largest frog in South America,
builds a giant foam nest from its skin secretions. Tom was able to induce the
frogs to breed with simulated rainstorms alternating with dry periods to
replicate natural environmental conditions. After depositing eggs in the foam
nest, the female remained nearby, adding secretions to maintain the nest, until
the tadpoles were removed and reared in finger bowls.
A significant addition to the
collection was that of 15 Panamanian golden frogs (Atelopus zeteki).
These rare frogs are part of a conservation initiative among several AZA
institutions [see IZN 49 (2), pp. 107–8 – Ed.]. Several zoos,
including Denver, sent animal staff to Panama to work with the government and
local population to preserve this species. Because of its sensitivity to
environmental changes and high profile with the Panamanian people, the golden
frog is a flagship species for rain forest preservation. We hope to breed this
species in 2003 and help with possible reintroductions back to Panama in the
future.
Animal
Health Department (by
David E. Kenny, Jeff Baier and Felicia Knightly)
We all watched with bated breath as
West Nile virus progressed westward across the country, eventually arriving in
Colorado at the end of the summer. We had one definite case at the zoo,
involving an adult Chilean flamingo. Fortunately, it survived and there were no
additional cases in 2002. Many other zoos around the country were not so
fortunate and recorded multiple bird deaths in their collections. Parts of the
Midwest have a sharp decline in many species of free-ranging birds as a result
of the West Nile outbreak. We probably benefited by the virus arriving here
late during a dry summer, and expect that we may see the full force of the
virus in the summer of 2003. In addition to mosquito control, we plan to
vaccinate all of our equids (as we did in the spring of 2002) and most of our
outdoor bird collection, although the verdict is currently out on the efficacy
of the licensed vaccine in avian species.
We are sad to report the loss of
Buck the male black jaguar, Bosaga, a Przewalski's horse mare, and Sammy the
male California sea lion. What was interesting from a medical perspective was
that all three demonstrated a cancer known as squamous cell carcinoma. In
addition, there was a fourth case involving a Chilean flamingo chick that is
still living and doing well. We have no explanation for this cluster of cases.
A very interesting case involved one
of our large green moray eels (Gymnothorax funebris). Fish live in an
environment that has minimal gravitational effects, allowing them to devote
more tissue to muscle and less to a supportive skeleton. Most fishes maintain
their position in the water column by using a swim bladder. Something went
terribly wrong with our eel's buoyancy system and he continually floated to the
surface. With the cooperation of the Tropical Discovery staff, Dr Jeff Baier
was able to engineer an anesthesia system for the eel, and we successfully
anesthetized him on three occasions for taking of blood samples and a surgical
procedure. Unfortunately, we were unable to correct his condition and we
humanely euthanized him.
We don't usually see the high
incidence of cardiovascular disease found in humans in exotic species; however,
Patrick, a male De Brazza's monkey, died from heart failure, though we had
successfully managed him for several months with digoxin, an ACE inhibitor and
a diuretic. Patrick originally came to us from Phoenix Zoo, Arizona, and had
contracted valley fever, which is common in the Southwest, and this
unfortunately also affected his heart.
Conservation
and Research Projects
(by Richard P. Reading and Brian J. Miller)
During 2002, the zoo was involved in
48 field conservation and research projects in 21 foreign countries and five
U.S. states. We also supported six projects within the zoo. Our projects focus
primarily on landscape conservation planning and focal species, a widely
accepted means of conserving larger ecological systems. Examples of such
landscape planning efforts include the Southern Rockies and the Northern and
Southern Great Plains. As for focal species, we were involved with projects on
wolves, jaguars, desert elephants, wild camels, prairie dogs, green macaws,
Humboldt penguins, Komodo dragons, golden frogs, and more. Geographically,
several focal regions are evident, including the western U.S.A., Mexico,
Mongolia and north-central China, and southern Africa. The vast majority of our
projects contribute to career development of young, local conservationists. A
few highlights follow.
Dr Rich Reading and colleagues
placed the world's first radio collar, monitored by satellites, on a wild
Bactrian camel in Mongolia. Rich, along with senior zoo veterinarian Dr Dave
Kenny and other colleagues, collared six argali sheep in 2003 to start an
ecology project they began exploring several years ago. Dr Brian Miller
continued advising a project he began on pumas and jaguars in the dry tropical
forests of Jalisco, Mexico; this project has continued since 1995 and will be
used by a Mexican graduate student for his Ph.D.
Zoo staff members were active in
conservation projects in 2002. Rick Haeffner and Alex Saunders hosted an
important meeting on Malagasy fish conservation to help outline future
directions. Bryon Shipley continues his work on reptiles and amphibians
associated with prairie dogs. Tom Weaver traveled to Panama to help a
conservation and inventory project focused on golden frogs and other reptiles
and amphibians. John Azúa helped with a project to resolve reproductive
problems in great hornbills and Mary Jo Willis continued analyzing ecological
data on Humboldt penguins. Gabe Kibe traveled to Namibia to assist on a desert
elephant conservation project, and Chris Bobko continued her research into
stress factors affecting captive black rhinoceros. Merle Moore, Director of
Horticulture, continued working with nutritionist Dr Nancy Irlbeck on their
study of browse fed to zoo animals, as well as their compilation of a browse
database.
Denver Zoo continued or initiated
financial support for additional field conservation projects in several
countries, primarily conducted by our 17 unpaid Research Associates, who allow
our involvement in programs at little cost but with great benefits to
conservation. Significant endeavors in 2002 included work on sun bears in
Indonesia, nutrition of zoo animals, argali sheep conservation in China, wild
dog research in Botswana, revising environmental laws in Georgia and Armenia,
bird distribution assessment in southern Africa, and jaguar conservation in
Mexico.
WUPPERTAL
ZOO, GERMANY
English
summary of the Annual Report 2002
During 2002 the zoo was visited by
534,955 people. On 31 December 2002, 5,069 animals of 464 species were
exhibited (2001: 4,636 animals of 466 species).
The most important arrivals were:
1.1 dusky leaf langurs, 1.0 black-footed cat, 3 little egrets, 1.1 harlequin
ducks, 4.2 goosanders, 1.0 Argentinian ruddy duck, 1.0 white-naped crane, 0.2
victoria crowned pigeon, 1.0 kookaburra, 0.1 white-tailed trogon, 0.1 hooded
pitta, 1.0 pompadour cotinga, 1.1 crimson fruit-crows, 1.1 bare-throated
bellbirds, 1.1 Andean cocks-of-the rock, 4 long-tailed tits, 2.2 painted
finches.
The following breeding results were
most noteworthy: 1.1 red-necked wallabies, 3.5 short-eared elephant shrews, 2.2
golden-headed lion tamarins, 2.0 lion-tailed macaques, 2.0 golden-bellied
mangabeys, 1.0 dusky leaf monkey, 4 Patagonian cavies, 1.1 Gordon's cats, 1.1 Temminck's
cats, 0.1 Geoffroy's cat, 0.1 black panther, 1.0 California sea lion, 1.2
Grant's zebras, 3 collared peccaries, 0.1 dromedary, 1.2 southern pudus, 2.0
Thorold's deer, 0.1 yellow-backed duiker, 0.3 bongos, 1.2 eland, 0.1 Ankole
cattle, 1.2 Siberian ibex, 24 elegant crested tinamous, 2 black-footed
penguins, 1 bald ibis, 2 black-necked swans, 2 red-breasted geese, 1 nene, 15
blue-winged geese, 1.0 Madagascar teal, 8 common eider, 7 spectacled eider, 2
white-winged wood ducks, 40 common goldeneyes, 2 buffleheads, 0.1 oldsquaw, 7
hooded mergansers, 18 black-headed ruddy ducks, 4 African white-backed ducks,
0.1 black vulture, 1 seriema, 3 red-crowned cranes, 25 avocets, 3 lapwings, 2
araraunas, 1 red-cheeked macaw, 1 guira, 2 great grey owls, 1 tawny frogmouth,
2 kookaburras, 13 pale-legged horneros, 1 barn swallow, 1 vermilion flycatcher,
2 house wrens, 2.0 yellow-bellied sunbirds, 2 tree sparrows, 3 Rothschild's
mynahs, 4 ravens, 12 green pythons.
* * *
INTERNATIONAL
ZOO NEWS
Auckland
Zoo, New Zealand
In late March, 1.1 twins were born
to the zoo's siamang pair, 24-year-old female Iuri and 19-year-old male Itam.
This was a rare event – only 2% of recorded zoo siamang births worldwide have
resulted in twins. The parents have successfully reared five previous
offspring; but keepers think the stress of mothering twins was too much for
Iuri, causing her to uncharacteristically injure and reject them at seven weeks
old. Sadly, the female twin suffered severe injuries and, despite
round-the-clock intensive care, her condition deteriorated and she had to be
euthanased. The male, Iwani, however, recovered quickly from his leg bite and
anaemia, and is now thriving in his own nursery where he has been receiving
extra special care from keepers and veterinary staff.
Hand-rearing a baby gibbon is no
easy option, particularly for keepers with already full schedules. The team has
pulled out all the stops to give him the care and attention he needs, including
frequent bottle-feeding with S26 Gold baby milk. Like any baby, he's reliant on
being held and carried, which his parents would normally do, but contact levels
need to be carefully considered to prevent him from imprinting too much on the
humans around him. The team's mission is to reintegrate him with his family by
the time he is one. To achieve this, he must be fully independent.
Iwani is making great progress. The
process of weaning him off his bottle on to his natural diet of fruit,
vegetables and browse is well under way and he's already very mobile; he can
climb, hold things and bear his own weight. To encourage him to develop his
range of movement, and to give him a sense of a primate rather than human
environment, items like sticks and ropes are being substituted for human toys
in his cage. Every opportunity is taken to reinforce his siamang identity. With
senior primate keeper Christine Tintinger, he spends time with his brother
Irian in an inside den each morning, which gives him some close physical
contact with another siamang. He is also moved as close as possible to his
parents when they start their characteristic and extremely loud daily `duet',
so that he's as much a part of it as possible. Siamangs are the loudest of all
the primates, and calling to each other helps maintain pair bonds, and advertises
and defends territory.
In a few months' time the weaning
process will be completed, and Iwani will be encouraged to develop his strength
by climbing the mesh of the enclosure and swinging from ropes. At around six
months, he will move into an enclosure-cage next door to his parents so he can
have increased interaction with them, and at night he will be in a warm, secure
den near them. There's still a lot of hard work to be done before Iwani is
ready to fully rejoin his family, but Christine is optimistic. `All the signs
are very encouraging. Even if his mother takes no further notice of him, I
believe he will get the care and contact he needs from his father and brother.'
Zoo
Alive (Spring 2003)
Basel
Zoo, Switzerland
The zoo has adapted today's call for
ecological and conservation-oriented exhibits to a very restricted space: a
narrow, boomerang-shaped site measuring only 6,500 m2. We decided to
build three large outdoor enclosures of about 1,000 m2 each,
connecting two houses situated at the outer tips; one dedicated to an
ecological topic, the other to conservation (opening in summer 2003).
The logical consequence was that we
had to give up more than half of our large carnivore species, some of them very
popular, such as the Siberian tigers and black panthers. We answered the public
outcry of resentment at the loss of favourite species with the promise that the
overall number of (smaller) species would increase (in fact from eight to 25!),
that small species are generally more active and that active animals tell
better `stories'. We were faced with some harsh criticism regarding the zoo's
(imaginary) `clearance sale'. However, after the opening of the first house,
the initial rejection soon gave way to enthusiasm and approval.
We decided to use the food chain as
the ecological story, and the changing relationship between man and nature as
the conservation story. African exhibits – including Masai giraffes, okapis,
elephants and greater flamingos – surround the construction site, so an African
setting was a simple choice. It took much more consideration to decide on an
arid, savanna- or semi-desert-like environment in southern Africa: dry, hot and
flat, with little natural shelter. As a place on which to hang the story, we
gave it the name of Etosha, the largest national park in Namibia.
For the conservation story, the
choice of animal species was pretty simple: African wild dog, cheetah, lion,
Nile crocodile and termites (Macrotermis bellicosus) – the last as an
example of sustainable use of natural resources by a multi-million-inhabitant
city. The casting for the food chain exhibit was much more complex and covered
about 20 species.
This kind of planning was a novelty
for us. Previously, architects generally built a house with lots of similar
enclosures; then the animal people filled them with a variety of species; and
at the end the education department had to make up a story. This is definitely
putting the cart before the horse. Doing it the right way is more difficult,
takes longer, gives more room for possible errors and makes it harder for the
architects, but it is very, very rewarding.
The first of the two buildings, the
Etosha House, shows a very modern architecture with a concrete framework and
lots of steel and glass. Nonetheless the aura is earthy, organic, and
unobtrusive, due to walls made of natural tamped clay and a roof covered with a
flowery meadow and bushes. The first room, the entrance hall, symbolizes the
origin of plant and consequently of animal life: sunlight, clay and a thin layer
of water running down a rocky wall covered with tiny patches of algae and moss.
The second room is a sunbathed
glasshouse without any animals, `only' plants. The message is threefold:
plants, and only plants, can transform solar energy into organic energy. Plants
are the only `producers'; all the other higher organisms are `consumers'.
Further, during the day plants inhale carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen as a
by-product, thereby producing the air we breathe. And finally, all the plants
in this glasshouse show a wide variety of adaptations to their arid
environment, such as special organs for storing water, leaves being dropped
during dry seasons to minimize evaporation, and tap roots digging deep into the
soil in search of water.
When you step into the main
building, you step into the world of animals and consumption. The first animals
you encounter are a swarm of 2,500 migratory locusts, who stand not for the
horror of their renowned mass migration, but rather for the important role they
play in the food chain – turning hard-to-digest plant food into easy-to-digest
animal proteins. Visitors can view the seven different stages of locust
development, from egg to reproducing, winged adult, in four small containers. A
constant population of 12,000 locusts is maintained to display the 2,500
individuals in the exhibit and provide an output of an additional 3,500 locusts
per week which are fed to other animals. A colony of grey mole rats (Cryptomys
anselli) show that plants are not only under attack from above – the enemy
is also chewing its way through the earth in search of roots and tubers.
The next two species show how much
food preferences influence different ways of life. Striped grass mice (Lemniscomys
barbarus) eat seeds and other readily available plant matter. They can
`afford' to live in tolerant families without any competition over food. They
produce large numbers of offspring that remain in the colony, and they do not
defend territories. Elephant shrews are just the opposite: they look like mice,
but they eat insects. As these are scarce in this dry environment, elephant
shrews defend a territory of up to one square kilometre. They are strictly
monogamous and give birth only once or twice a year to a single or twin
offspring. The young have to leave before they reach sexual maturity at the age
of five to six weeks.
A puff adder (Bitis arietans)
and an orb web spider (Nephila sp.), in a mixed exhibit with pygmy mice
(Mus minutoides) in the upper canopy, show how ingenious predators can
be at catching and killing their prey. On the other hand porcupines, leopard
tortoises, sociable weavers and rock hyraxes demonstrate that prey species are
not defenceless. Honey bees and carmine bee eaters tell another story of an
evolutionary arms race: the elaborate poisonous sting of the bees against the
flying acrobats who catch them in the air and beat them with their beaks
against a twig until both sting and poison are discharged.
Predator and prey species were
supposed to live together in harmony in the largest enclosure. Ground squirrels
(Xerus inauris), rock hyraxes, red-billed hornbills and the carnivorous
meerkats all have a common enemy, the fast birds of prey. Everybody profits
from the other species' vigilance and the `prey' doesn't fit the `prey profile'
of the predator. The problem here was the offspring of the herbivores. The
little ones do fit the profile and, consequently, the meerkats had to be
separated whenever babies were around. We may switch to the smaller dwarf
mongooses in the future. Currently we are trying to transfer our thriving
colony of sociable weavers with two rapidly growing nest complexes from a
closed enclosure into this open, multispecies main enclosure.
Presenting decomposing organisms is
probably the greatest challenge because of their usually small size and hidden
lifestyle. We decided against the use of microscopes or binoculars, thus
putting certain limits on our choice of species. At the moment we are
displaying rotten wood, incubated with edible fungi like oyster or shitake
mushrooms. Unfortunately another inhabitant, the giant African land snails,
declared these mushrooms their preferred diet, which leads to a certain
competition. Fortunately mushrooms grow very fast. A variety of rose beetles (Eudicella
sp.) represent decomposing insects, and some beetle species are even
reproducing in their display container.
Some Etosha House enclosures are
still in an experimental phase after two years of operation, while others ran
smoothly from the beginning. A house of this complexity, with over 25 species
and many mixed exhibits, is much like a living organism, constantly adapting to
life's pressures. Fortunately the public's acceptance of this highly didactic
exhibit has been enormous. Visitors were seriously complaining when we tore
down the old carnivore house, as we had nothing to show in which direction we
planned to go; but now that they can see that the new exhibits are more
suitable for the animals, there are few complaints.
The Gamgoas House, opening on 13
June 2003, is dedicated to conservation and is linked with an in situ
project we are supporting for Kalahari lions. The building will provide a
direct view of the lion enclosure and will house a very large Nile crocodile
enclosure (topics: CITES, farming, ranching, sustainable use) and a termite
mound (topic: five-million-inhabitant sustainable eco-city). Core of the house
is a conservation exhibition of more than 350 m2 with topics
including habitat loss, poaching, overhunting, tourism, management of wildlife,
imported diseases, and the situation of the indigenous human population (the
bushmen). This is also linked with in situ conservation since we support
a project to help the San people find a new existence without alcohol, high
suicide rates and violence.
Abridged
from Gerry Guldenschuh in EAZA News No. 42 (April–June 2003)
Bronx
Zoo, New York, U.S.A.
We welcomed our second, third and
fourth lesser adjutant stork (Leptoptilos javanicus) chicks in early
April. The zoo is the only institution in North America currently holding this
species, and members of the Bird Department hope to develop a breeding and
management program for these rare animals. Staff have partially hand-raised the
chicks and prepare special diets to ensure their health. Both parents have been
adequately feeding and instinctively protecting their new young as well. The
zoo's storks are considered part of a research population to help determine how
best to breed this species in captivity and eventually increase their numbers
in their native habitats in China, India, Indonesia and other regions of
Southeast Asia.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), September 2003
Cheyenne
Mountain Zoo, Colorado, U.S.A.
The zoo is proud to announce the
debut of a mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) calf, born on 29 May 2003;
the male infant was put on exhibit on 1 July. Zoo staff noticed the baby did
not feed immediately after birth, so the mother was milked and the infant
bottle-fed for the first few days. The young tapir is now healthy and active,
and the zoo is proud to be the home of the eighth mountain tapir living in
captivity in the world. Both sire and dam were born at Los Angeles Zoo; the
mother was sent to Cheyenne Mountain Zoo in 1995 and the father in 2000. [For
more on Los Angeles Zoo's work with mountain tapirs, see IZN 49 (2), pp.
112–3 – Ed.]
Mountain tapirs are extremely rare
and endangered in the wild, where they inhabit the high northern Andes, in the
paramos and cloud forests of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. They are already
extinct in parts of their former range, mainly due to agricultural
encroachment, poaching and habitat destruction. Intense efforts are being made
to save this species, vital to the well-being of the Andean ecosystem.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), August 2003
Columbus
Zoo and Aquarium, Ohio, U.S.A.
On 8 June the zoo welcomed a cheetah
cub born to mother Cinnabar, who was artificially inseminated on 5 March using
a new laparoscopic intra-uterine procedure. This is a great accomplishment and
a giant step in increasing the number of cheetahs worldwide. To date, there
have been ten pregnancies using this new technique, including three achieved
with frozen sperm. The pregnancy rate is 50 percent using this procedure in
cheetahs. Cheetah litters in the wild average one to seven cubs, while litters
produced by AI average about two cubs. Single cub litters generally require
hand-raising, as the mother ceases to produce milk after two or three weeks due
to lack of sufficient suckling stimulation. However, the zoo's new cub is over
30% larger than the average of other cubs born here, and staff are hopeful that
he can remain with his mother for a normal weaning period and beyond.
Historically, breeding cheetahs in
captivity has been difficult. Of the 300 adult cheetahs in North America, only
19% of the males and 28% of the females have successfully reproduced. The last
cheetah birth at Columbus Zoo was in 1989.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), September 2003
Fort
Worth Zoo, Texas, U.S.A.
Sixteen endangered Asian brown
mountain tortoises (Manouria emys) hatched at the zoo during the second
week of September. This species, the largest Asian tortoise, is native to
India, Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo; it is prized as a delicacy and used for
medicinal purposes. In 2001, the hatchlings' parents, along with thousands of
other turtles and tortoises, were destined for China's illegal food trade when
they were confiscated by Hong Kong customs. Following identification and
initial triage, the animals were then shipped to Miami, Florida, where a
multidisciplinary team, spearheaded by Rick Hudson (Fort Worth Zoo Conservation
Biologist), co‑chair of the Turtle Survival Alliance (TSA), placed them
in appropriate homes throughout the U.S.A., forming `assurance colonies' to
maintain the species for their eventual recovery.
Fort Worth Zoo adopted six brown
mountain tortoises and placed them in intensive care for three months. Once the
tortoises were healthy and strong, they were placed on exhibit and eventually began
breeding. About 40 eggs were laid in July, making Fort Worth the first
institution to successfully breed from the rescued mountain brown tortoises.
The TSA, under the auspices of IUCN,
was organized in 2000 at Fort Worth Zoo in response to the ongoing Asian turtle
crisis, widely recognized as one of the most significant wildlife tragedies of
modern times. The mission of the TSA is to develop and maintain a global
network of living tortoises and freshwater turtles, with the primary goal of
maintaining these species over the long term to provide maximum future options
for the recovery of wild populations.
Abridged
and adapted from Tracy Sturrock, Communications Coordinator
Kuranda
Koala Gardens, Queensland, Australia
The gardens have been open for just
over a year. We have three (1.2) common wombats; Digger, the male, arrived a
few months after Sandy and Jemima. His arrival seemed to calm the females'
aggressive behaviour towards each other.
The wombat enclosure is a grassy
area measuring approximately 10 m by 15 m. A moat at the front allows safe,
unobstructed viewing by the public, and three large resting logs decorate the
enclosure. A night pen, with a substrate entirely of river sand, is attached to
the enclosure, catering for the animals' natural instinct to dig. Once in the
night pen, they are off-display.
Jemima and Digger seem quite
compatible, but Sandy is less accommodating, attacking the male if he ventures
close to her. Keepers have witnessed courtship behaviour and copulation between
Jemima and Digger, but as yet no pouch young has resulted.
Recently the wombats have been
observed displaying signs of boredom – pacing the perimeter of the enclosure,
digging at the grass and pawing at the fences and gates. It was decided,
therefore, that a formal breeding and behavioural enrichment program should be
formulated. Some consultation with staff at Western Plains Zoo helped to get us
on our way. As Digger and Jemima are compatible, it was decided that Sandy
would be removed to an off-exhibit area until further notice, while Digger and
Jemima would remain together, undisturbed, for around four to six months. A
behavioural enrichment schedule was then begun.
Some modification to the main
exhibit was undertaken, with two square metres of coarse river sand placed in
the moat at the front so the wombats could dig without being let into the night
pen. Any burrows created can be filled in after a while to give them something
to do.
A range of behavioural enrichment
activities were then identified for both wombat enclosures. These include:
– Provision of old koala
browse/eucalyptus leaf on the branch every second day;
– Twice to three times per week,
freshly dug and washed wild guinea grass to be placed around the enclosures for
the wombats to eat;
– Some charcoal to be provided once
a week for the wombats to chew (depending on how they like it);
– The placement of food bowls to be
varied around the enclosures to encourage the wombats to search;
– A handful of lucerne to be
scattered regularly around near the logs;
– A big, stringy log for chewing to
be provided and replaced once the bark is completely stripped.
All our efforts are being recorded,
along with any observations of the wombats' behaviour such as courtship
displays, matings, pacing, chewing, digging etc. The enrichment regime has only
just begun, but at least no evidence of pacing has been observed since it
started. The 1.5-metre-long stringy bark chewing logs have been well and truly
chewed. Also, several raw coconuts have proven quite popular. And Digger and
Jemima have created their own small quarry, managing to move almost half of the
sand around one side of the enclosure.
It's quite cool in Kuranda at the
moment, so Digger does not seem to be feeling very amorous. Once the weather
warms up, we expect to see lots of courtship behaviour and, we hope, a baby
wombat shortly after!
Tracey
Hayes in ARAZPA Newsletter No. 59 (August 2003)
Living
Coasts, Torquay, U.K.
Living Coasts, which opened to the
public in July 2003, is a world-class coastal habitats attraction located on a
prime waterfront site in Torquay, South Devon. It features wading birds, terns,
sea ducks, auks, penguins, fur seals and black rats in reconstructed habitats
including beaches, cliff-faces and an estuary. A huge meshed aviary allows
birds to fly free over the heads of visitors. Acrylic viewing panels and
tunnels give crystal-clear views of species displaying natural underwater
behaviours.
The new facility is a sister
attraction to Paignton Zoo, both being parts of the Whitley Wildlife
Conservation Trust. `Living Coasts is about life on the edge,' says the zoo's
executive director, Simon Tonge. `It's about that fragile margin where land
meets sea and how the animals that live there – including us – survive.
Visitors will be able to investigate the lives of these animals through
interpretation that will include hands-on and audio-visual activities. It will
carry a strong conservation and education message.'
The £7 million project, part-funded
by the South West Regional Development Agency and the European Regional
Development Fund, has created about 50 new jobs and helped to regenerate a
shabby and run-down area of the town. The lower part of the Living Coasts
complex cleverly incorporates the beautiful stone arches of a Victorian public
swimming bath which closed in 1869.
Loro
Parque, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
Every year in July the short-tailed
parrots (Graydidascalus brachyurus) start breeding. This time, to
guarantee success, the clutch was removed from the nest of the breeding pair
and placed in the nest of an experienced pair of red-shouldered macaws (Ara
nobilis), who are currently raising the three chicks in question. Our
second pair has also produced young; however, this chick will remain with them
to test their parental preparedness.
Two young blue-naped parrots (Tanygnathus
lucionensis) who were hatched by their parents have already fledged. Within
the same genus, the great-billed parrots (T. megalorhynchus) and the
Müller's parrots (T. sumatranus) are also raising young at the time of
writing.
The two hand-reared Philippine
cockatoo chicks mentioned in our last report are doing extremely well, and have
been joined by a third. The hatching of these three chicks is of vital
importance for the captive population of this endangered species, as so far
they represent the only reproductive success within the breeding programme
maintained by a number of zoos.
Another species which is being
looked after at our baby station is a slender-billed parrot (Enicognathus
leptorhynchus). For several years, the group formed by five individuals did
not produce any young, until two birds were exchanged in the spring of this
year.
This has been a very successful year
for our caiques. Each of the three taxa housed at Loro Parque – black-headed (Pionites
melanocephala), white-bellied (P. l. leucogaster) and yellow-thighed
(P. l. xanthomeria) – has produced several young.
Our greater vasa parrots (Coracopsis
vasa) have successfully raised offspring, as they do every year. Three
young were hand-reared and two were raised by their parents, so the large
breeding aviary is currently accommodating five youngsters of this species.
Abridged from the report for August
compiled by Matthias Reinschmidt, Curator, Loro Parque
Marwell
Zoo, U.K.
Perhaps the most challenging
veterinary case at Marwell recently came when one of the red-crowned cranes
managed to break her upper beak. At first glance it appeared a relatively
simple fracture; the beak wasn't completely shattered and the fractured bones were
still well aligned. However, an X-ray showed just how complicated the situation
really was. The beak had broken at a weak point where the nares (nostrils)
open. In addition the air sacs extend further down the beak, so that the whole
structure is extremely delicate, flimsy and air-filled. This meant that simple
methods of stabilising fractures, such as casting, were ruled out as we
couldn't block her nares. We also couldn't use many implants as the bones are
so thin and fragile. And to make matters worse, cranes are utterly reliant on
having an intact beak to feed properly, so, whatever method we chose, the beak
had to be fully functional immediately; she certainly wouldn't have tolerated
regular force-feeding over a long period of time while the beak healed.
We therefore adapted a method used
for repairing growth defects in macaw beaks. The first thing we did was to
insert a thick metal pin through the frontal bone and sinus. This is a tough
area at the base of the beak (worryingly close to the eye and brain), and this
pin is used to stabilise the whole repair. A much thinner pin was then inserted
through the solid bone and keratin at the tip of the beak. This was then bent
and fixed to the first pin using epoxy resin. The result was a lightweight frame
that stabilised the whole upper beak. The fracture site could then be aligned
more exactly by placing a wire suture around the uppermost segment and placing
some epoxy resin over this. She has tolerated this extremely well and started
feeding within a few days. We removed the wire suture after a few weeks and the
fracture is repairing well. The frame is still in place, but we plan to remove
this soon.
John
Chitty in Marwell Zoo News No. 116 (Summer 2003)
Monterey
Bay Aquarium, California, U.S.A.
Three western snowy plover (Charadrius
alexandrinus nivosus) chicks recently hatched at the aquarium, much to the
surprise of aviculturists who had little hope that the eggs of the threatened
shorebirds would survive, given their tumultuous history. A core group of
volunteers at Half Moon Bay State Park first spotted the nest on 4 April, set
up a protective barrier and monitored it daily through 13 April, when a high
tide washed the nest away and the parents abandoned the site. A Half Moon Bay
park ranger – on advice from the aquarium staff – heated an athletic sock full
of uncooked rice in a microwave oven, then placed the rescued eggs on the `sock
nest' in a box filled with sand and drove two hours to bring them to Monterey.
Aquarium staff immediately placed the eggs in an incubator off-exhibit. On 1
May, aviculturists heard peeping from two of the eggs, one of which hatched
later that day. The second and third hatched on 2 and 3 May. Aquarium staff
released the young chicks into the wild in mid-June, bringing the number of
snowy plovers hatched, raised and released by the aquarium to 16 in the last
four years. Nine of the birds released have been raised with the help of the
aquarium's resident male snowy plover. Most of the released plovers have been
observed in the wild with flocks and appear to be doing well. In the wild,
western snowy plovers are a federally threatened species, largely because of
destruction of their beach and dunes habitat for development and recreation.
These fist-sized birds usually lay eggs on the sand where nests are at risk not
only from wild predators but also from people sunbathing, walking their dogs,
or riding horses on the beach.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), August 2003
Newquay
Zoo, U.K.
In August, a new chapter in the
zoo's history began when the Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust, through its
subsidiary charity, Paignton Zoo, purchased Newquay Zoo from its owner/director
Mike Thomas and his partners. The trustees of the WWCT felt that Newquay, on
account of its high-profile education work, would add a significant new asset
to the Trust's `portfolio' of zoos and nature reserves, which includes – as
well as Paignton Zoo – the new Living Coasts complex in Torquay [see above, p.
443], Slapton Ley National Nature Reserve and two urban nature reserves in
Paignton. The fact that Newquay Zoo is also a very viable and thriving business
was also a major factor in their decision.
Simon Tonge will be executive
director of Newquay as well as Paignton Zoo, and Stuart Muir will be assistant
director at Newquay and the senior member of staff on site. Stuart is the
co-founder and director of Shaldon Wildlife Trust; he will not lose his contact
with Shaldon, but has appointed a director, Tracey Moore, to run the site in
his absence.
Oregon
Coast Aquarium, Newport, Oregon, U.S.A.
Our aviculturists' consistently high
quality of seabird husbandry has proved beneficial for the pigeon guillemot (Cepphus
columba) colony as they welcomed eight new chicks in late July. In the
wild, these chicks fledge at about five weeks, but usually leave the nest
one-by-one at night, and walk or flutter to the sea. To better replicate their
natural instincts, the hatchlings will join the colony in the Aquarium's
outdoor seabird aviary in early September, at which point visitors will be able
to catch a glimpse of them.
According to Karen Anderson, Curator
of Birds, the species tends to be delicate, and is often hard to breed in a
mixed-species exhibit. To facilitate the laying of fertilized eggs, Aquarium
aviculturists made sure the pigeon guillemots had access to safe nests which
the tufted puffins couldn't access, as the puffins often raid nests and break
eggs. All eggs from our six mating pairs were pulled and placed in an incubator
until hatching. In order to create a stable environment, the aviculturists are
hand-rearing all eight chicks. Anderson notes, `Nervous by nature, pigeon
guillemots are better adjusted and remain healthier when hand-reared.' All
eight chicks are valuable to the captive population management of this species,
as there are a relatively small number of them in captivity.
Wild pigeon guillemot colonies are
vulnerable to population declines as a result of human activities such as
over-fishing and oil spills that can cause fluctuations in food supplies or
directly impact the colonies' physical well-being. Numbers have yet to recover
after the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989. Like other alcids, pigeon guillemots
reproduce slowly, laying only one or two eggs once a year, and usually don't
replace lost eggs from a first clutch.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), September 2003
Point
Defiance Zoo and Aquarium, Tacoma, Washington, U.S.A.
Five red wolf pups are a testament
to a new technique that could drastically improve breeding of an endangered
species. Point Defiance is proud to be the first institution to use
non-invasive hormonal monitoring to establish the ideal time to artificially
inseminate female wolves. Fecal samples, tested by Toronto Zoo, were used to monitor
hormone levels in order to determine when the wolves ovulate. Four females were
selected for monitoring and insemination. Red wolves only ovulate once a year
for a few days between mid-February and mid-March. Until now, researchers had
to catch the wolves daily and draw blood to measure hormonal activity and
determine when to inseminate. The fecal method is much less stressful for the
animal. This is the first time fecal hormone analysis alone has been used to
time AI in any species.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), September 2003
Sea
World, San Diego, California, U.S.A.
For the first time in the park's
39-year history, we have successfully incubated and hatched sea turtles,
something only two other aquariums are known to have done. Assistant Curator of
Fishes Carl Jantsch notes that the attempt at reproduction was successful
because aquarists simulated the natural breeding environment found in the wild.
On 1 April, it was noticed that one
of the female green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the Sea Turtle Beach
display had dug a pit and deposited her eggs. Staff collected 105 eggs from the
nest and incubated them behind the scenes in coral sand over a water bath at
the park's freshwater aquarium. Between 4 and 10 June, the turtles began to
hatch and surface. In the wild, newly hatched sea turtles head directly for the
ocean. At Sea World, aquarists took the 21 surviving hatchlings from the nest,
put them in water and began feeding them a diet of squid, krill, shrimp, fish
and a special `turtle chow'. After monitoring the turtles' progress for several
weeks, aquarists deemed them healthy and put them on display in late June.
Communiqué (American Zoo and Aquarium
Association), September 2003
Sea
World, Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia
Shark Bay, one of the largest
man-made lagoon systems for sharks, will open at Sea World at Christmas 2003.
The complex will consist of touch tanks, a tidal pool, a large reef pool and a
large shark pool holding six million litres of water. As guests enter Shark Bay
they will be given the opportunity to interact with some of the inhabitants of
one of the specially designed touch pools. They will not only look, learn and
listen, but will also get to touch the tidal pool creatures.
The water from the touch pools will
overflow into a tidal pool, home to our smaller rays, then surge over into the
large Snorkel Lagoon – the reef tank. This will be a themed environment,
housing smaller shark species such as leopard sharks, blacktip reef sharks,
nervous sharks, sandbar whalers and epaulette sharks, together with shovelnose
rays, cowtail rays, and a large variety of colourful reef fish and
invertebrates. In this large reef environment, guests will be able to dive and
snorkel amongst the sharks as part of a new set of animal adventure programs.
They will also be able to watch the animals from above water level, providing a
visual opportunity similar to the view from the deck of a boat.
The largest lagoon will house the
larger and more dangerous species, including magnificent tiger sharks and
spectacular bull whaler and dusky whaler sharks. This lagoon will provide the
animals with the space to complete a 60-metre-long swim-glide pattern without
the fear of bumping into objects or other animals. This distance is essential
for larger sharks, which use the glide movement to rest.
The two large pools, Shark Lagoon
and Snorkel Lagoon, will appear as one large pool from above. In reality, below
the bridge will be two large acrylic panels that separate the large sharks from
the smaller reef species. This will give the participants in the new Snorkel
with the Sharks program the feeling that they are in the same tank as the
larger sharks. Snorkellers and divers will also have the opportunity to learn
about these animals through an innovative underwater education signage trail
that they can follow while swimming around the pool.
When guests visit the underwater
viewing areas of Shark Bay, their first visual encounter will be through four
10 metre by 3 metre acrylic panels. These panels are 180 mm thick and weigh
over 6.5 tonnes. Television monitors will show footage on conservation issues,
management and general information on the animals displayed in Shark Bay.
The filtration system will combine
multiple filtration techniques, as used in other Sea World exhibits –
mechanical, biological, chemical, ozone and UV technology. The filtration
system will turn over the entire water volume of Shark Bay every 90 minutes – a
rate of about 1,000 litres every second.
Miranda
Creak in ARAZPA Newsletter No. 59 (August 2003)
Taronga
Zoo, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
The zoo's Marine Mammal Research
Centre is currently undertaking research into the acoustic behaviour of
Australian fur seals. The project's investigators, Joy Tripovich, Dr Tracey
Rogers and Dr Rhonda Canfield, are examining the vocal repertoire and
recognition systems in both male and female seals, focusing on the male
intersexual recognition systems. They have recorded calls from wild seals at
Kanowna Island, Victoria, and these calls will be analysed to determine whether
individual recognition exists in this species. They will also be trialling a
new technique with the captive fur seals at Taronga to determine if vocal
recognition exists in this species. During the trials the animals are `asked'
to make a choice and tell the researchers whether they can actually
discriminate individuals based on vocalisations alone.
Carolyn
Hogg in ARAZPA Newsletter No. 59 (August 2003)
Western
Plains Zoo, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia
After a number of years of
preparation, the second regional joint import of white rhinoceros occurred on
20 September 2002, with 3.4 animals arriving in Adelaide from Kruger National
Park, South Africa. All seven underwent post-arrival quarantine at Monarto Zoo,
after which one pair stayed there while 2.3 were transferred in February to
Western Plains in refrigerated trucks (to keep the animals cool during
exceptionally high summer temperatures). Before their arrival, extensive works
had been completed in off-exhibit breeding and holding facilities.
Wild-caught female Umqali gave birth
to a healthy female calf in late March, and subsequently staff have worked to
introduce the females and maintain them in one herd. This included the
successful introduction of female Alex, a 22-year-old rhino already resident at
the zoo. The female herd are now on exhibit, and male Thomas – 35 years old,
and a long-term Western Plains Zoo resident – has been given access to this
group. The three bulls will be kept off-exhibit, with access to the cows being
given at strategic intervals (Thomas is on first rotation!).
In late 2002 the zoo received two
brother African wild dogs from amongst a number recently imported from South
Africa by Monarto Zoo. The two males were integrated with a female recommended
for breeding at Western Plains, in our off-exhibit breeding yards. (Our main
exhibit group are siblings born here in 1999.) Staff reported the birth of a
number of pups in June 2003, and their first forays outside the pupping den
took place in July. At present we believe there are three pups, who are as yet
unsexed, awaiting their first vaccinations by veterinary staff in August. This
is a significant birth for the regional program, given the genetic importance
of the imported animals.
ARAZPA
Newsletter No. 59
(August 2003)
News
in brief
Melbourne Zoo, Victoria, Australia,
is celebrating the world-first hatching of the world's rarest insect, the Lord
Howe Island stick insect (Dryococelus australis). A pair of the 12-centimetre-long
insects, whose impressive size and odd appearance once earned them the common
name of `land lobster', arrived at the zoo in February [see IZN 50 (5),
p. 310]. The female began to lay eggs almost immediately, and the first
hatching took place on 7 September.
* *
* * *
A female aye-aye was born on 9 July
at Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, Japan. At first she was fed by the keeper, but later she
was given back to her mother to rear.
* *
* * *
At Zürich Zoo, Switzerland, eight
Galapagos tortoise hatchlings emerged between 4 and 22 May from a clutch of ten
eggs laid on 29 December 2002. They bring to 48 the number bred at the zoo
since 1989. All offspring to date have been produced by the same pair.
Robert
Zingg in EAZA News No. 43 (July–September 2003)
* * *
RECENT ARTICLES
Ademmer, C.: Nahrungswahl bei
Kleideraffen: vergleichende Beobachtungen im Endangered Primate Rescue Center
(Cuc Phuong Nationalpark, Vietnam) und im Kölner Zoo. (Food preferences in douc langurs: comparative
observations at the EPRC and Cologne Zoo.) Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo
Vol. 46, No. 3 (2003), pp. 105–116. [German, with English summary. Douc langurs (Pygathrix spp.)
are specialised folivores, who show a great selectivity in leaf intake. Little
is known about food plants in their natural habitat, and nothing is known about
plant composition. Moreover, the dietary requirements of this endangered
primate species are still unknown. One aim of this study was to assess these
requirements by observing and measuring food selection. This was done under
different housing conditions. Two studies of doucs' feeding ecology were
carried out. In the first, the zoo animals' food provision and intake were
measured quantitatively and the nutrient and energy concentrations of the consumed
diets were calculated. The results suggested that leaf quality did not
correspond exactly to the needs of the animals. The present study went one step
further: the food intake of douc langurs was analysed under semi-free
conditions at the EPRC in Vietnam. Here, animals are kept under two conditions:
first, in large outdoor enclosures, and second, under semi-free conditions in
an area of primary forest. Both keeping conditions were included in the study.
Food intake behaviour was observed and food intake was measured quantitatively.
Ninety-two food plants of 39 families were identified. A preference for young
leaves was found for most of them. Other plant parts eaten were leaf stems and
flowers. The amount of leaves offered was higher in the EPRC than at Cologne
Zoo, regarding both quantity and species diversity. Chemical analyses of
important food plants fed at both the EPRC and the zoo are planned, in which
the content of fibre, protein, fat, selected minerals and energy will be
measured.]
Bailey, T., and Hallager, S.: Management of
bustards in captivity. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 1 (2003), pp.
1–8.
Baker, W.K.: Are there any specific
recommendations on capture techniques for smaller mammals? Animal Keepers'
Forum Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 190–191.
Baker, W.K.: Can aquariums have crisis events? Animal
Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 8 (2003), pp. 326–327.
Baker, W.K.: Do you have any suggestions for
stress management in the workplace? Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 6
(2003), pp. 234–235.
Baker, W.K.: Recommendations for maintaining a
safe work environment when working in direct proximity to large hoofstock. Part
2. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp. 153–154.
Baker, W.K.: Specific suggestions for an
emergency tool kit. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp.
274–275.
Barber, J.: Motivation, contrafreeloading and
animal welfare: discussion points around diet presentation. Animal Keepers'
Forum Vol. 30, No. 8 (2003), pp. 344–347.
Beardsley, V.: Providing a means for chimps to
pass to keepers `foreign' objects found in their exhibit. Animal Keepers'
Forum Vol. 30, No. 8 (2003), pp. 333–339. [Dallas Zoo, Texas, U.S.A.; the
animals have been trained to use a four-inch (10-cm) PVC chute to pass objects
(such as cans, bottles etc.) out of the enclosure.]
Bloomsmith, M.A., Jones, M.L., Snyder, R.J.,
Singer, R.A., Gardner, W.A., Liu, S.C., and Maple, T.L.: Positive reinforcement
training to elicit voluntary movement of two giant pandas throughout their
enclosure. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 323–334. [The purpose
of this study was to test the usefulness of positive reinforcement training in
managing the `shifting' behaviour of two young giant pandas at Zoo Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A. The authors describe the steps in the training process, the
amount of personnel time required, compliance by the pandas and a brief
analysis of contextual factors affecting their performance. Positive
reinforcement training techniques successfully increased the pandas' level of
compliance during times of day when they were not routinely asked to move
through doorways. During the last 15 training sessions in the seven months that
were evaluated for this study, the compliance of each of the two pandas was 87%
during routine times and 89% during non-routine times. Each panda was typically
trained during three or four sessions per week, and the mean session duration
was 12 minutes; trainers spent a mean of 46 minutes per panda per week on
training this behaviour. An analysis of the effects of context (on-going
activities at the time a command to shift was given) indicated that most of the
time (66%), even when there was a potentially distracting activity taking
place, the pandas still responded to the first or second command given. As a
wider range of animal species is being trained in zoo settings, unique
challenges need to be considered when designing training programmes for each of
them.]
Boydston, E.E., Kapheim, K.M., Watts, H.E.,
Szykman, M., and Holekamp, K.E.: Altered behaviour in spotted hyenas associated
with increased human activity. Animal Conservation Vol. 6, No. 3 (2003),
pp. 207–219. [To investigate how anthropogenic activity might affect large
carnivores, the authors studied the behaviour of spotted hyenas (Crocuta
crocuta) during two time periods. From 1996 to 1998, they documented the
ecological correlates of space utilization patterns exhibited by adult female
hyenas defending a territory at the edge of a wildlife reserve in Kenya. Hyenas
preferred areas near dense vegetation but appeared to avoid areas containing
the greatest abundance of prey, perhaps because these were also the areas of
most intensive livestock grazing. They then compared hyena behaviour observed
in 1996–98 with that observed several years earlier and found many differences.
Female hyenas in 1996–98 were found farther from dens, but closer to dense
vegetation and to the edges of their territory, than in 1988–90. Recent females
also had larger home ranges, travelled farther between consecutive sightings,
and were more nocturnal than in 1988–90. Finally, hyenas occurred in smaller
groups in 1996–98 than in 1988–90. The authors next attempted to explain the
differences by testing predictions of hypotheses invoking prey abundance,
climate, interactions with lions, tourism and livestock grazing. Their data
were consistent with the hypothesis that increased reliance on the reserve for
livestock grazing was responsible for observed changes. That behavioural
changes were not associated with decreased hyena population density suggests
that the behavioural plasticity typical of this species may protect it from
extinction.]
Brock, D.: An update on Little Rock Zoo's
multi-male gorilla group: ten years and counting. Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 209–211.
Carpenter, M.: Increasing activity levels in
captive elephants: `spread' (is) the word. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol.
30, No. 8 (2003), pp. 328–330. [Environmental enrichment , Oakland Zoo,
California, U.S.A.]
Conklin, D., Elkins, B., and Shelton, K.: Algae
control in aquariums: methods, mechanisms and madness. Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp. 276–277.
Conklin, D., Elkins, B., and Shelton, K.:
Effects of temperature on aquatic systems. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol.
30, No. 8 (2003), pp. 331–332.
Conradie, C.: 10 years: AfriCat's work with
cheetahs and leopards. Ratel Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 137–149.
[AfriCat, a non-profit organisation in Namibia, has been in operation since
1991. Its main objective is to promote the tolerance of large carnivores,
particularly cheetahs and leopards, on Namibian farmland and attempt to
alleviate the conflict between livestock producers, game farmers and these
predators. The immediate benefit of AfriCat's offering to remove cheetahs and
leopards from traps is that it prevents these animals from being shot, as this
service offers farmers an alternative to destroying these perceived problem
animals. An additional benefit is that this contact with farmers enables
AfriCat to promote ecologically sound farm management practices, and greatly
enhances farmers' goodwill towards predator conservation. As many cats as
possible are returned to the wild; only those that are unable to be released
remain at AfriCat, including animals which have become habituated to people or
completely tame, and those that have suffered injuries too extensive for them
to survive in the wild. A 10,000-acre [4,000-ha] rehabilitation camp provides
cheetahs due for release with the opportunity to hone their hunting skills and
become self-sustaining; once they have proved that they can cope on their own,
they can be relocated to a private game reserve, where their progress will
continue to be monitored.]
Cunningham, A.A., Prakash, V., Pain, D.,
Ghalsasi, G.R., Wells, G.A.H., Kolte, G.N., Nighot, P., Goudar, M.S., Kshirsagar,
S., and Rahmani, A.: Indian vultures: victims of an infectious disease
epidemic? Animal Conservation Vol. 6, No. 3 (2003), pp. 189–197. [During
the 1990s, populations of two species of griffon vulture, the Indian
white-backed (Gyps bengalensis) and the long-billed (G. indicus),
declined by more than 90% throughout India. These declines are continuing and
are due to abnormally high rates of both nesting failure and adult, juvenile
and nestling mortality. Affected birds exhibit signs of illness (neck drooping
syndrome) for approximately 30 days prior to death. Epidemiological
observations are most consistent with an infectious cause of this morbidity and
mortality. To investigate the cause of these declines, 28 vulture carcases,
including adults and juveniles of both species, were examined in detail.
Significant post-mortem findings included visceral gout, enteritis, vasculitis
and gliosis. The authors have so far been unable to identify the causative
agent, but the results of their pathological studies are most consistent with
those for an infectious disease, probably of viral origin.]
Czekala, N., McGeehan, L., Steinman, K., Li,
X., and Gual-Sil, F.: Endocrine monitoring and its application to the
management of the giant panda. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp.
389–400. [Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species, San Diego, Chengdu
Giant Panda Breeding Center, China, and Chapultepec Park Zoo, Mexico City.]
Deka, R.J., Sarma, N.K., and Baruah, K.K.:
Nutritional evaluation of the principal forages/feed consumed by Indian rhino (Rhinoceros
unicornis) in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary and Assam State Zoo-cum-Botanical
Garden, Assam. Zoos' Print Journal Vol. 18, No. 3 (2003), pp. 1043–1045.
Demark, K.: Enrichment of African black-footed
penguins at the New Jersey State Aquarium. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol.
30, No. 6 (2003), pp. 253–255.
Dhoot, V.M., Upadhye, S.V., Zinjarde, R.M., and
Pande, M.R.: Handrearing of jackal (Canis aureus) at Maharajbag Zoo,
Nagpur. Zoos' Print Vol. 18, No. 1 (2003), pp. 995–996.
Dudek, M.: Warum sich der Wolf
(Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) in Eurasien entwickelt hat und nicht in
Afrika. (Why did the wolf
evolve in Eurasia and not in Africa?) Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo
Vol. 46, No. 3 (2003), pp. 119–128. [German, with brief English summary. The author suggests that the
evolution of the wolf can only be understood in the context of its ecological
interrelation with two other species, man and raven.]
Durrant, B.S., Olson, M.A., Amodeo, D.,
Anderson, A., Russ, K.D., Campos-Morales, R.,, Gual-Sill, F., and Garza, J.R.:
Vaginal cytology and vulvar swelling as indicators of impending estrus and
ovulation in the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Zoo Biology
Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 313–321. [Center for Reproduction of Endangered
Species, San Diego, and Chapultepec Park Zoo, Mexico City.]
Ellis, M.: The purple-throated fruitcrow Querula
purpurata. Avicultural
Magazine Vol. 109, No. 2
(2003), pp. 78–79.
Flamand, J.R.B., Vankan, D., Gairhe, K.P.,
Duong, H., and Barker, J.S.F.: Genetic identification of wild Asian water
buffalo in Nepal. Animal Conservation Vol. 6, No. 3 (2003), pp. 265–270.
[The wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) is highly endangered, with the
few remaining populations already affected or likely to be increasingly
affected by hybridization with domestic buffalo (B. bubalis). The
authors describe the evaluation of a genetic method to discriminate wild from
mixed ancestry (hybrid) and domestic animals, and to identify with high
probability those most likely to be pure-bred wild. Samples from 45 animals
(phenotypically classified into three groups – ten wild, 28 domestic and seven
hybrid) were genotyped for ten microsatellite loci. Although genetic distances
among the three groups were small, an assignment test identified two of the
`wild' and seven of the `domestic' as hybrids. However, sample sizes also are
small, indicating the need for a conservative approach in the first instance in
using these results. As more animals are genotyped, assignments will become
more accurate, and a translocation programme to establish a second Nepalese
wild population in a protected area could be undertaken.]
Fogel, G.: The art of armadillo lizards (Cordylus
cataphractus): fifteen years of captive observations. Bulletin of the
Chicago Herpetological Society Vol. 38, No. 6 (2003), pp. 113–119.
Gregson, J.: Breeding the wrinkled hornbill Aceros
corrugatus at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park. Avicultural Magazine
Vol. 109, No. 2 (2003), pp. 80–81.
Guerrero, D.: Behaviour evaluation: a Japanese
macaque in a private collection who has begun to bite. Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 6 (2003), pp. 230–232.
Guerrero, D.: Why was an animal held in a
privately-owned facility included in the column? Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 8 (2003), pp. 317–318. [Diana Guerrero's column `Animal Behavior
Concerns and Solutions' appears regularly in Animal Keepers' Forum.]
Hardy, A.: Breeding and hand-rearing the
blue-winged leafbird Chloropsis cochinchinensis at the Riverbanks Zoo
and Garden. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 1 (2003), pp. 14–21.
Hare, V.J., Ripsky, D., Battershill, R., Bacon,
K., Hawk, K., and Swaisgood, R.R.: Giant panda enrichment: meeting everyone's
needs. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 401–416. [San Diego Zoo is
participating in an ongoing comprehensive enrichment plan for its three giant
pandas. In February 1998, Panda Team members identified specific goals for each
adult panda, and began developing an enrichment plan to meet those goals. All
three animals are provided with opportunities to explore their environment and
exercise their physical and mental abilities. Behavioral data are routinely
collected to assess the effectiveness of the strategies in use. However,
meeting the needs of the pandas is just the beginning of creating an effective,
long-term enrichment plan. The plan must also consider staff time and effort,
institutional requirements, resource availability, visitors' experiences, and
research protocols. The authors describe the enrichment plan in detail, discuss
the process of developing and maintaining it, and explore potential problems
and their solutions, with the specific intention of providing guidelines for
other institutions interested in creating an enrichment plan for giant pandas.]
Jakher, G.R., Dookia, S., and Dookia, B.R.:
Herd composition and population dynamics of Gazella bennetti (Sykes,
1831) in Gogelao Enclosure (Nagaur), Rajasthan. Zoos' Print Journal Vol.
17, No. 11 (2002), pp. 936–938.
Kemp, Y.M.: Exotic diseases – Part 1. Foot and
mouth disease. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 6 (2003), pp. 236–237.
Kemp, Y.M.: Exotic diseases – Part 2. West Nile
virus. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp. 278–279.
Kemp, Y.M.: Exotic diseases – Part 3. Exotic
Newcastle disease. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 8 (2003), pp.
320–325.
Ledbrook, V.: Enrichment methods for cats at
Colchester Zoo. Ratel Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 130–131. [Mainly
describes some olfactory enrichment ideas, in particular using spices and food
flavourings.]
Lepperhoff, L.: The festive amazon Amazona
festiva festiva in the wild and in captivity. Avicultural Magazine
Vol. 109, No. 1 (2003), pp. 29–37. [The captive breeding took place at the
private Association Hyacinthinus parrot breeding centre in Switzerland.]
Luyster, J.S.: Enrichment as a behavioral
modification tool in the zoo hospital setting. Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 196–200. [Louisville Zoo, Kentucky, U.S.A.]
McDermott, L.: Humboldt penguin feeding study. Ratel
Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp. 108–114.
McEntee, E.: Elephants love ketchup. Animal
Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp. 144–148. [Elephant enrichment at
Detroit Zoo, Michigan.]
Marguli, S., and Weber, T.: Keepers and
behavioral research: fostering the connection. Animal Keepers' Forum
Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp. 285–287.
Miller, A.: Presenting diet items to encourage
species-appropriate behaviors: a behavioral husbandry resource center workshop.
Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp. 288–291.
Miller, A., and Baker, W.K.: Sniffing out a
path to enrichment. Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp.
160–171. [Little Rock Zoo, Arkansas. An experiment was conducted to test the
reactions of a pair of wart hogs to urinary samples from several species.
Activity levels seemed to increase with non-predator samples; with lion and
leopard samples, the effect was a decrease in overall activity.]
Moehrenschlager, A., and Macdonald, D.W.:
Movement and survival parameters of translocated and resident swift foxes Vulpes
velox. Animal Conservation Vol. 6, No. 3 (2003), pp. 199–206. [To
help guide translocation programmes of swift foxes or other imperilled species,
the authors aimed to discern factors affecting translocation success among
reintroduced swift foxes in Canada. Post-release movements characterized three
stages. In the initial acclimation phase, foxes moved erratically and quickly
distanced themselves from release sites. During the establishment phase,
distances from the release site did not change significantly but daily
movements were more wide-ranging than those of concurrently tracked, resident
swift foxes. In the final settlement phase, movements of translocated foxes
reflected those of resident individuals. Radio-telemetry showed that survival
and reproductive success were highest for swift foxes with small dispersal
distances, suggesting that measures should be taken to acclimatize animals to
release sites. Since females had lower survival rates than males,
translocations should also use a greater proportion of females to establish
balanced sex ratios in the population. Translocated juveniles dispersed less
far but survived and reproduced as well as translocated adults, suggesting that
juveniles can be used to establish translocated foxes in small, protected
areas, while minimizing demographic effects on source populations. The fact
that survival rates and litter sizes of translocated foxes were similar to
those of resident animals indicates that translocation can be an effective
reintroduction tool for this endangered species, and possibly other foxes.]
Mulnix, P.M., Colello, D.N., and Baeyens, M.M.:
Flat puppy syndrome in maned wolves corrected through physical therapy. Animal
Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp. 281–284. [Little Rock Zoo,
Arkansas, U.S.A.]
Narushima, E., Hayashi, T., Hara, T., Nose, N.,
and Komiya, T.: Changes in urinary concentrations of total estrogen and
pregnanediol in a female giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) from 1991
to 2000. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 383–387. [Ueno Zoo,
Tokyo, Japan.]
O'Brien, S., Emahalala, E.R., Beard, V.,
Rakotondrainy, R.M., Reid, A., Raharisoa, V., and Coulson, T.: Decline of the
Madagascar radiated tortoise Geochelone radiata due to overexploitation.
Oryx Vol. 37, No. 3 (2003), pp. 338–343. [To avoid the risk of
misapplying conservation effort the correct diagnosis of the agent causing a
population to decline requires scientific approaches. The radiated tortoise,
endemic to southern Madagascar, is heavily harvested for food and for the pet
trade. Fearing over-exploitation, the tortoise was protected under Malagasy law
and placed on Appendix I of CITES, yet scientific evidence that the species is
declining, and that exploitation is the agent driving any decline, is lacking.
Interviews with tortoise harvesters, a comparison of the size of the tortoise's
range through time, and estimates of tortoise abundance at 14 sites under
different levels of harvest intensity were used to seek evidence of
over-exploitation. In the first study to attempt to quantify the size of the
illegal harvest, the authors estimated that up to 45,000 adult tortoises are
harvested each year. The species is declining, with its range having contracted
by one-fifth over the last 25 years. Three pieces of evidence strongly suggest
that over-exploitation is driving this decline: (1) commercial harvesters
reported travelling increasingly far, up to 200 km, to find sufficient
densities of tortoises; (2) tortoises were either absent or at very low
abundance at sites subject to commercial harvesting, but persisted at
relatively high densities in remote, unharvested regions; and (3) tortoise
abundance increased significantly with distance from urban centres of high
demand for tortoise meat. If current rates of harvesting continue, the radiated
tortoise will go extinct in the wild.]
Oehler, D.A.: Nest activity in rhinoceros
hornbills Buceros rhinoceros in relation to artificial rainfall
patterns. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 2 (2003), pp. 53–56. [The
response of a pair of hornbills at Cincinnati Zoo, Ohio, U.S.A., to scheduled
artificial monsoon rainfall and its subsequent cessation was observed as it
pertained to circannual behaviour (behaviour occurring on an approximately
annual basis; a rhythm or cycle of behaviour of approximately one year) and
resulting reproductive behaviours. Examination of the relationship of
reproductive success to the provision of artificial rain and its scheduled
discontinuation was conducted. Empirical data shows that nest activity
behaviours were non-existent prior to the provision of the rain patterns, and
egg laying commenced within seven days after the cessation of the artificial
monsoon rain. The study suggests that if natural-like cycles of rainfall are
provided as part of the management of the captive rhinoceros hornbill population,
successful breeding may result. The increase in captive breeding could have
positive effects on the future conservation of this species.]
Olson, M.A., Yan, H., Li, D., Zhang, H., and
Durrant, B.: Comparison of storage techniques for giant panda sperm. Zoo
Biology Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 335–345. [The results of this study (by
the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Wildlife Conservation and Research
Center, Wolong, China) indicate that fresh sperm stored for up to nine days at
4°C
maintains a higher viability than frozen-thawed sperm. Additional studies are
needed to determine if the liquid-stored sperm also has motility and
fertilizing capacity in vivo following AI. In addition, it was found
that within certain parameters, the choice of cooling method is not critical to
the cryosurvival of panda sperm. Therefore, further experimentation should
focus on optimization of cryoprotectant concentration, freeze rate, thaw rate,
and post-thaw treatment and storage.]
Owen, N.: Breeding the chestnut-tailed minla Minla
strigula. Avicultural
Magazine Vol. 109, No. 1
(2003), pp. 12–13.
Peat, L.: Cotswold Wildlife Park review of
2002. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 1 (2003), pp. 38–39.
Peat, L.: Wonga success. Avicultural
Magazine Vol. 109, No. 1 (2003), pp. 9–11. [Cotswold Wildlife Park, U.K.;
wonga pigeons (Leucosarcia melanoleuca) were successfully reared at the
park using three different methods – parent-rearing, hand-rearing, and rearing
by domestic Barbary dove (Streptopelia roseogrisea) foster-parents.]
Pérez-Garnelo, Delclaux, M., Talavera, C.,
López, M., and De la Fuente, J.: Use of computerized image analysis in the
morphometric characterization of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
spermatozoa obtained from the epididymis 4 hours postmortem. Zoo Biology
Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 355–364. [Madrid Zoo, Spain.]
Phillips, P.: The wild birds of Dublin Zoo. Ratel
Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp. 118–123.
Powell, V.J., and Wehnelt, S.C.: A new estimate
of the population size of the Critically Endangered Rodrigues fruit bat Pteropus
rodricensis. Oryx Vol. 37, No. 3 (2003), pp. 353–357. [The Rodrigues
fruit bat is endemic to Rodrigues Island, the smallest of the Mascarene Islands
in the Indian Ocean. The species is categorized as Critically Endangered on the
IUCN Red List. A study between February 2001 and February 2002 identified ten
roosts, four previously unrecorded. Roost sites were located in the north and
south of the island, all within forested valleys. Sixteen counts of each roost
site, evenly spaced throughout the study period, showed dramatic changes in
individual colony numbers, suggesting movement between roosts. Simultaneous
counts of all colonies resulted in a minimum population estimate of 5,076,
which is substantially higher than previous estimates of the species. This is
believed to be due to a population increase since the last count, newly
identified roosts and the movement of bats into different areas, allowing more
accurate counts to be made.]
Pywell, M.: 40-year celebrations begin at Welsh
Mountain Zoo. Ratel Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp. 97–101.
Racheli, L.: A brief note on the feeding
behaviour of two Agapornis species. Avicultural Magazine Vol.
109, No. 1 (2003), pp. 40–41. [Describes the use of feet to grasp food by A.
taranta and A. pullarius.]
Restall, R.: The tri-coloured munia Lonchura
malacca in Venezuela. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 2 (2003), pp. 49–52.
Riger, P., Schwartz, R., Lang, K., and Howard,
J.: Thailand Clouded Leopard Conservation Program summary. Animal Keepers'
Forum Vol. 30, No. 7 (2003), pp. 294–295.
Rookmaaker, L.C.: Historical records of the
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in northern India and Pakistan. Zoos'
Print Journal Vol. 17, No. 11 (2002), pp. 923–929.
Schutz, P.: Breeding the hoopoe Upupa epops
at Disney's Animal Kingdom. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 1 (2003),
pp. 22–28.
Schwitzer, C.: Seit 20 Jahren Wappentier –
Varis (Varecia variegata) im Kölner Zoo. (20 years a logo animal –
ruffed lemurs at Cologne Zoo.) Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo Vol.
46, No. 3 (2003), pp. 91–102. [German, with brief English summary. The black-and-white ruffed lemur has
been Cologne Zoo's logo since 1982. Ruffed lemurs have been kept in Cologne
since 1970 and bred since 1974. The zoo is the only one outside Madagascar to
keep all three subspecies. The author describes the systematics, distribution
and ecology of the species, and describes its husbandry in Cologne, discussing
aspects of housing, nutrition, breeding, and birth control measures. The
development of the EEP populations of both black-and-white and red ruffed
lemurs is shown, and trends in their development are elucidated. Research
studies of the nutritional ecology and population dynamics of ruffed lemurs
carried out at Cologne Zoo are described.]
Seddon, P.J., Ismail, K., Shobrak, M.,
Ostrowski, S., and Magin, C.: A comparison of derived population estimate,
mark-resighting and distance sampling methods to determine the population size
of a desert ungulate, the Arabian oryx. Oryx Vol. 37, No. 3 (2003), pp.
286–294. [Post-release monitoring, including abundance estimation, is an
important part of reintroductions, providing a basis for management
intervention designed to achieve long-term persistence. The Arabian oryx (Oryx
leucoryx) became extinct in the wild in 1972, but since 1982
reintroductions have taken place in Oman and Saudi Arabia. Modelling of oryx
population dynamics has highlighted the importance of precise estimation of
population size (N). Between 1990 and 2000 three methods of estimating N
have been applied in Mahazat as-Sayd protected area in Saudi Arabia: derived
population estimates (DPE) based on known births and deaths, distance sampling,
and mark-resighting (MR). This study assesses the feasibility and precision of
these methods. Inability to assess precision, interdependence of consecutive
estimates, and the assumption that all gains and losses are recorded, make DPE
of limited value. At current densities, distance sampling along 455 km of
driven transects yields too few detections to derive precise estimates of N.
To achieve a coefficient of variation of 20% it would be necessary to drive up
to c. 2,900 km of transect; this amount of survey effort could be
achieved through pooling of data across repeat surveys of established
transects. MR estimates, based on re-sighting of collared oryx, have the
potential to yield the most precise estimates of N when the proportion
of marked animals reaches 30% of the total population. The most reliable MR
estimates available indicate the Mahazat as-Sayd Arabian oryx population had
grown to more than 400 animals by 2000.]
Spinks, B.: Charco Palma pupfish in London. Ratel
Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 134–135. [Cyprinodon longidorsalis was
discovered in the early 1980s and officially described in 1993. The fish's
habitat was the brackish Charco la Palma spring in Nuevo León, Mexico, which
eventually dried up. The species has been considered extinct in the wild since
the end of 1991. A few specimens were recovered before the spring dried up, and
populations are now held by one institution in the U.S. and two in the U.K.
(London Zoo and the London Aquarium). London Zoo received ten fish in June
2000. They were housed in a tank almost as large as their natural habitat, and
began to breed almost immediately. Currently a stable population is held at the
zoo, and the London Aquarium took 20 individuals in January 2003. Fish
tuberculosis (Mycobacterium sp.) is present in the zoo's population,
manifesting itself as white lesions on the adult fish. Any symptomatic fish
have to be euthanased, as a population can quickly fall to Mycobacterium.
This has been an issue while breeding them, as the zoo cannot rely on a small
population. The author describes the zoo's efforts to simulate the species'
natural environment by manipulating their water's salt content and temperature
fluctuations.]
Swaisgood, R.R., Ellis, S., Forthman, D.L., and
Shepherdson, D.J.: Commentary: improving well-being for captive giant pandas:
theoretical and practical issues. Zoo Biology Vol. 22, No, 4 (2003), pp.
347–354. [The authors present the outcome of a panel discussion from Panda
2000, an international conference held in San Diego, California. The discussion
addressed how to use animal motivation theory to develop enrichment programs
that will improve physical and psychological well-being for giant pandas in
captivity. Wild animals held in captivity too often develop behavioral
abnormalities such as stereotypies. The motivational basis for these problems
is related to species-specific behavioral needs that arise from evolutionary
processes adapting the animal to its environment. A more general need is that
for animals to exercise some control over their environment. These general
principles of environmental enrichment were discussed with regard to past and
future attempts to devise enrichment programs for giant pandas. Participants
looked to nature for guidance where possible, but agreed that creative attempts
to develop functional analogues of natural tasks and challenges is appropriate,
regardless of `naturalness'. A holistic enrichment program should include
improved enclosure design and husbandry practices; feeding enrichment modeled
after bamboo feeding when possible; species-appropriate opportunities for
social interaction and communication; and routine exposure to a diverse array
of novel objects to stimulate play and exploration. These enrichment efforts
should attempt to address specific behavioral needs or give the animal more
choice and control over its environment.]
Sweeney, R.G.: The hand-rearing of a St Vincent
parrot Amazona guildingii. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 2
(2003), pp. 62–68.
Teetzen, M., and Teetzen, D.: Firehose animals.
Animal Keepers' Forum Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 212–216. [Sedgwick
County Zoo, Wichita, Kansas, U.S.A.; enrichment toys for big carnivores.]
van Heezik, Y., Ismail, K., and Seddon, P.J.:
Shifting spatial distributions of Arabian oryx in relation to sporadic water
provision and artificial shade. Oryx Vol. 37, No. 3 (2003), pp. 295–304.
[The spatial distributions of 15.20 Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx),
reintroduced into the fenced Mahazat as-Sayd protected area (2,244 km2)
in western Saudi Arabia between 1990 and 1994, were examined from their release
until the end of 1999. Over this period the authors observed a westward shift in
home range location of most male and female founder oryx to include the
rangers' camp within core areas of activity, despite rain falling in patches
throughout most of the reserve. Sporadic and unplanned availability of water
had occurred at the camp during several years. The pre-release enclosure was
also located at the camp, and high-quality shading areas could be found
underneath portacabins. Oryx that maintained independence of the camp tended to
be older individuals and those released in the first years (1990–1992).
Concentration of oryx in the western part of the protected area and around the
camp could potentially reduce the effective carrying capacity of the reserve,
change the social structure of the population, facilitate the transmission of
disease, modify habitat in the form of a piosphere (a zone of attenuating
animal impact away from a watering point) around the camp, and reduce potential
genetic flow within the reintroduced population. Whereas wild-born oryx were
observed at the camp, founders were disproportionately represented, suggesting
that potential problems associated with dependence on the camp may diminish as
the total population increases and ages.]
Warner, D.A.: Environmental and maternal
influences on eggs and hatchlings of the eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus
undulatus). Bulletin of the Chicago Herpetological Society Vol. 38,
No. 7 (2003), pp. 129–136.
White, D.: How to build a coconut cricket
feeder. Ratel Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003), pp. 128–129. [Marwell Zoo: a simple
enrichment device for small primates.]
Wilkinson, R.: Chester Zoo bird review 2002. Avicultural Magazine Vol. 109, No. 2 (2003), pp. 69–77.
Williams, R.: Zoo animal photography. Ratel
Vol. 30, No. 4 (2003), pp. 91–93.
Williams, T.: Blackpool Zoo helps with
ground-breaking elephant conservation project in India. Zoos' Print Vol.
17, No. 11 (2002), pp. 20–21. [A team of four from the zoo instigated a
microchipping project for captive Asian elephants. The Indian government has
now made the registration and microchipping of elephants mandatory, and soon
all movement of elephants will be monitored and checked, so that a complete
record of each animal can be kept throughout its life.]
Wilson, M., Kelling, A., Poline, L.,
Bloomsmith, M., and Maple, T.: Post-occupancy evaluation of Zoo Atlanta's Giant
Panda Conservation Center: staff and visitor reactions. Zoo Biology Vol.
22, No, 4 (2003), pp. 365–382. [Construction of a new zoo exhibit impacts
animals, visitors, and staff, and considerable attention should be paid to
evaluation of the exhibit. In November 1999, Zoo Atlanta received two giant
pandas from China, which presented an opportunity to evaluate the new exhibit.
The authors document the reactions of staff and visitors by a post-occupancy
evaluation (POE). Confidential interviews were conducted with 23 staff, and 145
zoo visitors completed questionnaires. Staff and visitors were asked to assign
quality ratings to specific areas of the exhibit, and complete a series of
open-ended questions. The findings suggest that staff and visitors evaluated
the exhibit favorably. On a five-point scale, it received mean ratings of 3.64
from the staff and 4.50 from the visitors. With a few exceptions, most areas of
the exhibit met or exceeded staff expectations. Staff and visitors identified a
number of strengths and weaknesses of the exhibit. Staff most frequently
recommended changes to the pandas' space and the ability to address husbandry
issues, while a large number of visitors did not suggest any changes, or did
not respond to the question. Visitors who did respond to the question most
often recommended that the zoo display additional pandas and modify the pandas'
space. There were no significant differences in visitors' ratings of the
different areas of the enclosure, or in their overall impressions of the
exhibit. The results are examined in terms of general implications for zoo
exhibit design, construction, and evaluation, and in light of the goals of this
facility. The study highlights the benefits of conducting POEs in a zoo
setting.]
Wilson, S.: ISO 14001, BS8555, EMS? What are
they and why are they important to zoos? Ratel Vol. 30, No. 5 (2003),
pp. 125–126. [The acronyms stand for International Standardisation
Organisation, British Standard and Environmental Management Systems. The author
outlines the way in which zoos are under increasing external pressure to
improve their environmental policies.]
Publishers
of the periodicals listed:
Animal Conservation, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park,
London NW1 4RY, U.K.
Animal Keepers' Forum, American Association of Zoo
Keepers, 3601 S.W. 29th Street, Suite 133, Topeka, Kansas 66614, U.S.A.
Avicultural Magazine, Membership Secretary, Stewart
Pyper, 21 Primrose Hill, Nunney, Frome, Somerset BA11 4NP, U.K.
Bulletin of the Chicago Herpetological Society, 2430 North Cannon Drive, Chicago,
Illinois 60614, U.S.A.
Oryx, Cambridge University Press (for Fauna and
Flora International), The Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2
2RU, U.K.
Ratel, Association of British Wild Animal Keepers,
110 Carrick Knowe Drive, Edinburgh EH12 7EL, U.K.
Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo,
Zoologischer Garten, Riehler Strasse 173, D-50735 Köln, Germany.
Zoo Biology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third
Avenue, New York, NY 10158, U.S.A.
Zoos' Print, Zoo Outreach Organisation, Box 1683,
Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 004, India.